Table 4.
Characteristics of included studies.
| Condition/Context | Population | Study type | Study duration | Study years | Incidence | Prevalence | N | Age range (years) | Diagnostic tools | Appraisal score | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Dengue | |||||||||||
| Africa | Soldiers | Prospective study | 24 m | 2011 | 330/25,458 | 25,458 | 19–56 | ELISA, RT-PCR | 7 | de Laval et al. (2013) | |
| Africa | Refugees | Active surveillance | 3 m | 2019 | 24% dengue fever; 54% dengue with warning signs; 22% severe dengue | – | 1–81 | RT-PCR | 5 | Ahmed et al. (2021) | |
| Africa | Refugees | – | 3 y | 1997–2006 | 15/38 | 38 | – | ELISA | 5 | Botros et al. (1989) | |
| Africa | Soldiers | Retrospective study | 36 m | 2008–2011 | 17.6/10,000 | 1000 | 19–56 | Serum, ELISA, microneutralisation assay | 7 | Hesse et al. (2017) | |
| Africa | Soldiers | Prospective study | 12 m | 1992–1993 | 43% virus isolation; 35% IgM-reactive | 129 | 19–25 | Serum | 6 | Sharp et al. (1995) | |
| Americas | Soldiers | Retrospective study | 36 m | 2008–2011 | 17.6/10,000 | 1000 | 19–56 | Serum, ELISA, microneutralisation assay | 7 | Hesse et al. (2017) | |
| Americas | Soldiers | Consecutive sample | 2 m | 1994 | 30/406 | 406 | – | ELISA, virus isolation | 6 | Trofa et al. (1997) | |
| Americas | Missionaries | Incidence | <1 m | 2010 | 25% | 28 | 16–69 | RT-PCR, IgM, MAC-ELISA | 5 | CDC (2011) | |
| Americas | Missionaries | 0 m | 2019 | 25% | 28 | 11–69 | rRT-PCR, MAC-ELISA | 5 | Sharp et al. (2012) | ||
| Asia | Travellers | Retrospective study | 48 m | 2001 | 5.6% | 696 | 15–54 | ELISA | 5 | Sung et al. (2003) | |
| Asia | Migrants | Screening | <1 m | 2003 | IgG: 80%; IgM: 0.5% | 600 | 20–39 | IgM/IgG | 6 | Perng et al. (2019) | |
| Middle East | Refugees | Incidence study | 12 m | 2016 | 27% | 436 | 1–70 | PCR | 5 | Alghazali et al. (2019) | |
| Southeast Asia | Soldiers | Outbreak study | 2 m | 1984 | 24/1000 | – | 20–43 | HI | 5 | Hayes et al. (1989) | |
| Southeast Asia | Soldiers | Prospective cohort | 5 m | 2015 | 6.60% | 585 | – | NT | 5 | Peragallo et al. (2003) | |
| Southeast Asia | Soldiers | Prospective cohort | 4 m | 2000 | 0.04% | 2500 | IgM & IgG | 7 | Kitchener et al. (2002) | ||
| Southeast Asia | Soldiers | Retrospective study | 36 m | 2008–2011 | 17.6/10,000 | 1000 | 19–56 | Serum, ELISA, microneutralisation assay | 7 | Hesse et al. (2017) | |
| Other | Soldiers | Prospective study | 24 m | 2011 | 330/25,458 | 25,458 | 19–56 | ELISA, RT-PCR | 7 | de Laval et al. (2013) | |
| Other | Travellers | Prospective study | 10 y | 2010 | 21/1000 | 24,920 | – | Serum, ELISA | 6 | Schwartz et al. (2008) | |
| Others | Travellers | Incidence | 36 m | 2005 | 0.34% | 63,000 | 11–70 | RT-PCR, IgG, IgM | 7 | Wichmann et al. (2007) | |
| Other | Travellers | Incidence | 70 m | 2010 | 10.1% | 594 | 40–49 | ELISA, IgG, IgM | 7 | Allwinn (2011) | |
| Other | Travellers | Retrospective study | 120 m | 2013 | 132 (21.5%) | 614 | 40–49 | NS1, RT-PCR | 7 | Trojanek et al. (2016) | |
| Southeast Asia | Travellers | Retrospective study | 0–16 m | 1999 | 107/292 | 292 | 19–60 | Indirect IFA | 6 | Lindback et al. (2003) | |
| Southeast Asia | Travellers | Retrospective study | 60 m | 2010 | Sri Lanka: 45.3/100,000; Bangladesh: 42.6/100,000; Thailand 13.6/100,000 | 925 | 0–76 | NS1, PCR, IgM | 7 | Rocklov et al. (2014) | |
| Southeast Asia | Travellers | Systematic records/retrospective study | 5 y | 2005 | 13/100,000 | 211 | – | Microscopy | 6 | Stienlauf et al. (2005) | |
| Southeast Asia | Migrant workers | Prospective study | 2 m | 2002 | 39/47 cases; 27/274 surveyed | 47 & 274 | – | ELISA | 5 | Seet et al. (2005) | |
| Southeast Asia | Travellers | Prospective cohort | 32 m | 2017 | 62% | 201 | 17–78 | RT-PCR, NS1 | 7 | Masyeni et al. (2018) | |
| Leishmaniasis | |||||||||||
| Africa | Farmers | Cross-sectional study | – | 2014 | 38% | 130 | – | ZCL lesion | 5 | Bellali et al. (2017) | |
| Africa | Migrants | Case-control studies | 36 m | 2011 | 39% | 376 | 14–38 | Positive DAT (Leishmania amastigotes) | 8 | Argaw et al. (2013) | |
| Africa | Migrants | Cross-sectional study | 3 m | 2016 | 9.6% | 178 | 1–29 | ICT | 8 | Aschale et al. (2019) | |
| Africa | Refugees | Outbreak study | – | – | 24.1% | 2714 | – | ELIZA, DAT | 5 | de Beer et al. (1991) | |
| Americas | Miners, migrants | Cross-sectional study | 9 m (wet season) | 2017/2018 | 73% | 168 | 16–75 | Smear, culture, PCR-RFLP | 7 | Loiseau et al. (2019) | |
| Americas | Soldiers | Retrospective study | 12 y | 1978 | 61% | 306 | – | Culture | 7 | Hepburn et al. (1993) | |
| Americas | Soldiers | Retrospective study | 2 y | 2011 | 1998: 29/990; 2004: 14/80 | 99 in 1998; 80 in 2004 | 18–48 | Serum, culture | 7 | van Thiel et al. (2011) | |
| Americas | Soldiers | Outbreak study | 6 m | 2020 | 3.5% (AR) | 858 | – | PCR | 7 | Henry et al. (2021) | |
| Americas | Soldiers | Retrospective study | 7 m | 2004 | 237/360 | 360 | – | Giemsa stain, PCR | 6 | Willard et al. (2005) | |
| Americas | Soldiers | Outbreak study, Incidence study | 6 m | Aug 2002–Jan 2003 | 16.9/100 (AR) | 71 | 19–37 | Microscopy, RDT | 6 | Berger et al. (2006) | |
| Americas | Soldiers | Outbreak study | 3 m | 1996 | Outbreak, 8 cases | 8 | – | Biopsy, smear, skin test | 5 | Silveira et al. (2002) | |
| Americas | Soldiers | Outbreak study | 1 m | 1986 | 77/303 (AR) | 303 | 18–23 | Microscopy | 7 | Ore et al. (2015) | |
| Americas | Soldiers | Not stated; suggests a prospective study | 12 m | 2002 | 25.3% | 352 | – | Montenegro skin test | 6 | Andrade et al. (2005) | |
| Americas | Soldiers | Incidence study | 3 m | 1995 | 89.6% | 48 | 19–20 | Giemsa stain, Montenegro intradermal reaction | 7 | de Oliveira Guerra et al. (2003) | |
| Americas | Soldiers | Prospective cohort | 6 y | 1981–1987 | 2.3/1000 | – | 15–56 | Scar | 7 | Dedet et al. (1989) | |
| Americas | Soldiers | Double-blind, placebo-controlled study | 3 m | 1995 | 2.8% active; 12.6% control | 86 | – | Microscopy, culture | 6 | Soto et al. (1995) | |
| Asia | Soldiers | Prospective cross-sectional survey | 12 m | 1985 | 50/5000 | 5000 | – | PCR, RDT, microscopy | 7 | Gunathilaka et al. (2020) | |
| Asia | Refugees | Cross-sectional study | 2 m | 1998 | 2.70% | 19,918 | – | Microscopy | 6 | Kolaczinski et al. (2004) | |
| Asia | Refugees | Cross-sectional study | 1 m | 1997 | 38% | 799 | 0–80 | Microscopy, culture, PCR | 7 | Rowland et al. (1999) | |
| Asia | Refugees | Cross-sectional, multicentric and observational study | – | 2015 | 8.3% | 421 | – | PCR | 6 | Douine et al. (2017) | |
| Asia | Travellers | Retrospective study | 168 m | 2016 | 60% (182) | 299 | 3–80 | Microscopy, skin smears | 8 | Sobirk et al. (2018) | |
| Middle East | Refugees | Retrospective study | 3.5 y | Jan 2011–Jun 2014 | 110 | 110 | 1–78 | Skin lesion | 6 | Inci et al. (2015) | |
| Middle East | Refugees | Retrospective study | 63 m | 2020 | 20 | – | 3–33 | Biopsy, PCR | 5 | Lindner et al. (2020) | |
| Middle East | Refugees | Retrospective study | 84 m | 2016 | 92.1% imported cases | 558 | 1–78 | PCR | 8 | Amr et al. (2018) | |
| Middle Easy | Refugees | Outbreak study | 1 m | 2012 | 74% of suspected cases | 1275 | – | Biopsy, PCR | 5 | Saroufim et al. (2014) | |
| Middle East | Refugees | Descriptive study | 6 y | 2010 & 2016 | 2.87/100,000 (IR) | – | Direct slit-skin smear | 5 | Kanani et al. (2019) | ||
| Middle East | Soldiers | Cross-sectional study | 1 m | 2013 | 13% | 225 | 19–63 | ELISA | 8 | Obwaller et al. (2018) | |
| Middle East | Soldiers | Retrospective study | 6 m | 2003 | 1.18% | 360 | – | PCR, biopsy, Giemsa-stained lesion smear | 5 | Willard et al. (2005) | |
| Middle East | Soldiers | Prospective cohort study | 2 y | 2015 | 19.5%; 64% bitten by sand fly | 200 | 24–61 | rK39, ELISA, IGRA, qPCR | 7 | Mody et al. (2019) | |
| Middle East | Soldiers | – | – | 2017 | 18% | 247 | – | ELISA, PCR, EDTA | 5 | Giladi et al. (1985) | |
| Middle East | Refugees | Incidence study | 3.5 y | 2010 | 18.5% | 416 | 0–60 | Giemsa-stained smear | 7 | Salman et al. (2014) | |
| Middle East | Travellers | Systematic records/retrospective study | 5 y | 2005 | 9% | 211 | – | Microscopy | 6 | Stienlauf et al. (2005) | |
| Other | Soldiers | Case series | 132 m | 2011 | 223 all cases | 223 | 2–86 | Giemsa stain, PCR | 8 | Wall et al. (2012) | |
| Other | Soldiers | Cross-sectional study | 1 m | 1985 | 13.30% | 225 | 19–63 | ELISA | 7 | Obwaller et al. (2018) | |
| Other | Travellers | Cross-sectional study | 120 m | 2008 | 64% | 286 | 11–77 | Smear biopsy, PCR | 6 | Solomon et al. (2011) | |
| Other | Travellers | Case series | 132 m | 2011 | 223 nested cases | 223 | 2–86 | Giemsa stain, PCR | 8 | Wall et al. (2012) | |
| Other | Travellers | Retrospective study | 96 m | 2003 | 79 | – | 19–30 | Microscopy, PCR | 5 | Lawn et al. (2004) | |
| Malaria | |||||||||||
| Africa | Farmers | Cross-sectional study | 1 m | 2020 | Microscopy: 14%; RDT: 17% | 1154 | 1–51+ | Microscopy | 7 | Mazigo et al. (2017) | |
| Africa | Migrants | Cross-sectional study | 3 m | 2019 | 55% | 773 | 27–52 | RDT, PCR | 7 | Martins et al. (2020) | |
| Africa | Migrants | Cross-sectional study | 3 m | 2016 | 22.4% | 178 | 15–65 | Microscopy | 8 | Aschale et al. (2019) | |
| Africa | Migrants | Cross-sectional study | 3 m | 2019 | 55% | 773 | 27–52 | RDT, PCR | 7 | Martins et al. (2020) | |
| Africa | Miners | Screening study | 4 m | 2014 | 216/1000 (AR) | 4053 | Microscopy, IFA | 6 | Li et al. (2015) | ||
| Africa | Soldiers | Retrospective study | 20 y | 2014 | 107/1000/year | 101 in 2005 | 17–48 | Biopsy | 7 | de Laval et al. (2014) | |
| Africa | Soldiers | Prospective study | 6 m | 1996 | 43% | 245 | 29–52 | – | 6 | Ennibi et al. (2012) | |
| Africa | Soldiers | Prospective cohort study | 6 m | 2015 | 1.8/10,000/week | 389 | – | RDT, microscopy | 6 | Wallace et al. (1996) | |
| Africa | Soldiers | Outbreak study | 6 m | 2013 | 18% (AR) | 439 | – | IFA | 5 | Sanchez et al. (2000) | |
| Africa | Soldiers | Incidence study | 6 m | 2002 | 71.3% | 72 | – | Smear or microscopy | 6 | Kawar et al. (2003) | |
| Africa | Migrants | Cross-sectional study | 0 m | 2013 | 12% overall | 592 | 18–65 | RDT | 7 | Schicker et al. (2015) | |
| Africa | Refugees | Community trial | 5 m | Jan 2001–Dec 2012 | OR 0.30 of treatment arm | 198 | – | PCR, microscopy | 6 | Kimani et al. (2006) | |
| Americas | Migrants | Case series | – | 2015 | 8/154 | 154 | – | Microscopy | 5 | Carreno-Almanzar et al. (2021) | |
| Americas | Migrants | Surveillance | 11 y | 2018 | 3% | – | < 5–65 > | Microscopy, RDT | 7 | Arisco et al. (2021) | |
| Americas | Miners | Passive surveillance | 12 y | 2016 | 15% | 203,773 | – | Microscopy | 7 | Sanchez et al. (2017) | |
| Americas | Miners | Case detection | 5 d | 2017 | 53.8% (AR) | 60% | 46 | – | RDT | 6 | Douine et al. (2019) |
| Americas | Miners | Surveillance | 11 y | 2018 | 3% | – | <5–65> | Microscopy, RDT | 7 | Arisco et al. (2021) | |
| Americas | Miners | Cross-sectional, multicentric, observational study | 6 m | 2020 | 22.3% (PCR prevalence) | 421 | – | NT | 6 | Douine et al. (2016) | |
| Americas | Miners | Cross-sectional study | 6 d | 2006 | 19% | 135 | 24–58 | ELISA, IgG | 6 | Silbergeld et al. (2002) | |
| Americas | Miners | Cross-sectional study | 1 m | 1996 | 48.3% | 205 | 20–63 | Blood testing/not mentioned | 7 | Pommier de Santi et al. (2016b) | |
| Americas | Soldiers | Double-blind, placebo-controlled study | 3 m | 1995 | 17% | 143 | – | Microscopy, PCR | 6 | Soto et al. (1995) | |
| Asia | Farmers | Cross-sectional study | 1 m | 2016 | 0.27% | 750 | 18–84 | Microscopy, RDT | 8 | Wangchuk et al. (2019) | |
| Asia | Farmers | Cross-sectional study | 2 m | 1996/1997 | 33.5% | 842 | – | Microscopy | 6 | Pluess et al. (2009) | |
| Asia | Migrants | Cross-sectional study | 5 m | 2016 | 3.8% | 309 | 27.70 ± 11.98 | RDT | 7 | George et al. (2019) | |
| Asia | Migrants | Cross-sectional study | 1 m | 2016 | 0.42% | 473 | 18–66 | Microscopy, RDT | 8 | Wangchuk et al. (2019) | |
| Asia | Refugees | Cross-sectional, multicentric, observational study | – | 2015 | 22.3% | 421 | – | RDT, PCR | 6 | Douine et al. (2017) | |
| Asia | Refugees | Cross-sectional malariometric surveys | 4 m | 2016 | Seroprevalence P. vivax (Jalala: 47.5%; Adezai: 17.6%); PCR P. vivax (Jalala: 15.6%; Kagan: 3.7%); P. falciparum (Jalala: 1.4%; Kagan: 0.8%) | 2522 | – | Blood sample | 6 | Wahid et al. (2016) | |
| Asia | Soldiers | Prospective cohort study | 12 m | 1993–2007 | 21/246 | 246 | – | Microscopy, PCR | 7 | Henderson et al. (1986) | |
| Asia | Soldiers | Prospective cohort study | 14 y | 2015 | Incidence 2.5/1000 in 1999 | – | – | Microscopy | 6 | Klein et al. (2009) | |
| Asia | Soldiers | Incidence study | 8 m | 2012 | 62% | – | 20–42 | Blood smear, RDT, PCR | 6 | Shaha et al. (2013) | |
| Asia | Soldiers | Case series | 4 m | 2002 | 52.4/1000 | 752 | 19–39 | Microscopy | 8 | Kotwal et al. (2005) | |
| Southeast Asia | Soldiers | Cross-sectional study | 1 m | 2017 | 11.2% | 313 | 24–40 | RDT, microscopy | 7 | Vilay et al. (2019) | |
| Southeast Asia | Soldiers | Prospective cohort study | 12 m | 1999 | 13% (AR); 5.2% (AR of redeployed) | – | – | Blood slide, PCR | 6 | Kitchener et al. (2003) | |
| Asia | Soldiers | Prospective cohort study | 8 m | 2015 | 82% | 11 | – | BinaxNOW® malaria kit, PCR | 5 | Klein et al. (2018) | |
| Asia | Soldiers in DMZ | Outbreak study | 12 m | 2010 | 70% | 3932 | 21–24 | Biopsy, PCR, microscopy, histology | 8 | Lee et al. (2002) | |
| Other | Migrants | Retrospective study | 240 m | 2015 | 89.3% | 3099 | 0–83 | Microscopy | 7 | Wangdahl et al. (2019) | |
| Other | Miners | Retrospective cohort study | 4 m | Sep 2010–Jan 2011 | Attack rate 26.5% | 272 | – | Blood smear, RDT, quantitative buffy coat | 5 | Pommier de Santi et al. (2016a) | |
| Other | Travellers | Retrospective study | 240 m | 2015 | 89.3% | 3099 | 0–83 | Microscopy | 7 | Wangdahl et al. (2019) | |
| Other | Travellers | Prospective cohort study | 5 y | 1985–1987 | Burma: 11.80/100,000; Korea: 0.25/10,000 | 2653 | – | Microscopy, RDT, PCR | 7 | Behrens et al. (2010) | |
| Other | Soldiers | Epidemiological review | 14 y | 1999 | 0.03/person/year (AR) | 213 | – | Microscopy, serum | 7 | Miller et al. (1999) | |
| Southeast Asia | Farmers | Cross-sectional study | 2 m | 2003 | 25% | 4306 | 16–60 | Microscopy | 7 | Erhart et al. (2005) | |
| Southeast Asia | Farmers | Prospective study | 12 m | 2005 | 780 cases; no denominator | 0.55–2.1% | 780 cases | – | Microscopy | 7 | Singhasivanon et al. (1999) |
| Southeast Asia | Forestry | Experimental study | 5 m | 2003–2008 | 479/1000 | 30/150 (∼20%) | 150 | – | Microscopy | 6 | Son et al. (2017) |
| Southeast Asia | Soldiers | Experimental non-randomised study | 5 m | 2017 | 62% | 118 | – | Microscopy, PCR | 5 | Brown et al. (1990) | |
| Southeast Asia | Rubber tappers | Incidence study | – | 2018 | 2.3% | 470 | – | RDT, ELISA, PCR | 6 | Jeffree et al. (2018) | |
| Southeast Asia | Rubber tappers | Incidence study | 7 m | 2000 | IRR 2.9 | 33 | _ | IgM or IgG by ELISA or isolation of dengue virus | 6 | Pattanasin et al. (2012) | |
| Southeast Asia | Refugees | Incidence study | 3 y | 1985 | 1983 (359/1000); 1984 (350/1000); 1985 (116/1000) | – | < 5–44 | Blood smear | 7 | Meek (1988) | |
| Middle East | Travellers | Systematic records/retrospective study | 5 y | 2005 | 26% | 211 | – | Microscopy | 6 | Stienlauf et al. (2005) | |
Abbreviations: Study duration: d, days; m, months; y, years. Diagnostic tools: AR, attack rate; ARR, attack rate ratio; DAT, direct agglutination test; EDTA, ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid; ELISA, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay; HI, hemagglutination inhibition; ICT, immuno-chromatographic technique; IFA, immunofluorescence antibody testing; IR, incidence rate; IRR, incident rater ratio; IgG, immunoglobulin G; IgM, immunoglobulin M; IGRA, interferon-gamma release assay; MAC-ELISA, IgM antibody capture ELISA; NS1, non-structural protein 1; NT, neutralisation test; OR, odds ratio; PCR, polymerase chain reaction; qPCR, quantitative PCR; RDT, rapid diagnostic test; RFLP, restriction fragment length polymorphism; rRT-PCR, real-time reverse transcription PCR; RT-PCR, reverse transcription PCR; ZCL, zoonotic cutaneous leishmaniasis.