Table 1.
Summary of the characteristics of included studies.
| Paper | Size | Location | Design | HM hormone | Milk type | Analysis of milk | Collection time | Collection method | Maternal factors assessed |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Brunner et al. (10) | 208 | UK | RCT | Adiponectin, Leptin | Mature | Whole milk | After overnight fast | Full breast expression (EP) | BMI, Fat Mass |
| Cagiran-Yilmaz et al. (11) | 65 | Turkey | Observational | Leptin | Mature | NS | 2 h after feed | Single breast expression (EP) | Weight, BMI, Hip, Waist & Mid-Upper arm circumference |
| Chan et al. (12) | 430 | Canada | Observational | Adiponectin, Leptin, Insulin | Mature (foremilk & hindmilk) | Skim Milk | Multiple feeds during 24 h | HE, if unable to do so EP | BMI, Ethnicity, Age, Smoking |
| Choi et al. (13) | 189 | USA | RCT | Adiponectin, Leptin, Insulin | Mature | Skim Milk | 10 am-12 pm, 2 h post-feed | Single breast expression (EP) post-feed | GDM |
| Christensen et al. (14) | 223 | Denmark | Observational | Adiponectin, Leptin, Insulin | Colostrum, Mature | Whole milk | Colostrum – 24-72 h after birth, Human milk – 9 am or 2 pm | Colostrum – HE, Human Milk – Full breast expression (EP) | BMI |
| Cortes-Macias et al. (15) | 100 | Spain | Observational | Adiponectin, Leptin | Mature | NS | NS | NS | BMI |
| De-Luca et al. (16) | 100 | France | Observational | Leptin | Mature | NS | 9 am-11 am during feed | EP | BMI |
| Ellsworth et al. (17) | 55 | USA | Observational | Insulin | Mature | Whole milk | 8 am-10 am 2 h post-feed | Single breast expression (HE/EP) post-feed | Weight |
| Enstad et al. (18) | 40 | USA | RCT | Leptin | Mature | Whole milk | NS | NS | BMI |
| Fields et al. (7) | 37 | USA | Observational | Leptin, Insulin | Mature | NS | NS | Single breast expression (EP) | BMI |
| Gridneva et al. (19) | 20 | Australia | Obersvational | Adiponectin, Leptin | Mature | Whole milk | NS | NS | Maternal Body Composition |
| Khodabakshi et al. (20) | 80 | Iran | Observational | Adiponectin, Leptin, Ghrelin | Mature | NS | 8 am-10 am after an overnight fast 2 h post-feed | Full breast expression (EP) post-feed | % Maternal Fat, BMI |
| Kunganathan et al. (21) | 59 | Australia | Observational | Adiponectin, Leptin | Mature | Whole & Skim milk | 9.30–11.30 am | HE/EP | BMI, % fat mass |
| Larson-Meyer et al. (22) | 22 | USA | Observational | Leptin | Mature (foremilk, hindmilk) | NS | 7 am-10 am after an overnight fast | Own pump/Mechanical pump | Body mass, fat mass, BMI |
| Larsson et al. (23) | 30 | Denmark | Observational | Leptin | Mature (foremilk, hindmilk) | NS | NS | Manual breast pump | BMI |
| Leghi et al. (24) | 15 | Australia | RCT | Adiponectin, Leptin, Insulin | Mature | Whole milk | NS | Full breast expression (HE/EP) pre- and post-feed | Body weight, fat mass, carbohydrate and energy intake |
| Miralles et al. (25) | 28 | Spain | Observational | Leptin | Mature | NS | 9 am-10 am after a 12 h fast | HE | BMI |
| Nuss et al. (26) | 33 | USA | Observational | Leptin | Mature | NS | In the morning after a 2 h fast | Single breast expression (EP) | BMI |
| Pundir et al. (27) | 18 | Australia | Observational | Cortisol | Mature | NS | 9.30 am-10.30 am | Pre- and post-feed | Height, BMI, % fat mass |
| Pundir et al. (28) | 650 | Finland | Observational | Cortisol | Mature | NS | Morning | Single breast expression (HE) | Weight, age, GDM, mode of delivery |
| Rodel et al. (29) | 36 | USA | Observational | Insulin | Mature | NS | Fasting and mid-feed | HE/EP | Type 2 Diabetes, GDM, Normal glucose tolerance |
| Romijn et al. (30) | 63 | Netherlands | Observational | Cortisol | Mature | NS | NS | HE/EP pre-feed | Psychological stress |
| SadrDadres et al. (31) | 135 | USA | Observational | Adiponectin, Leptin, Insulin | Mature | Skim milk | 8 am-10 am | Single breast expression (EP) post-feed | BMI, gestational weight gain, postpartum weight loss |
| Savino et al. (32) | 58 | Italy | Observational | Leptin | Mature (foremilk) | Skim milk | 7 am-9 am | HE | BMI |
| Schneider-Worthington et al. (33) | 25 | USA | Observational | Adiponectin, Leptin, Insulin | Mature | Skim milk | 8 am-10 am following an overnight fast | Personal breast pump | Fat mass |
| Schuster et al. (34) | 23 | Germany | Observational | Leptin | Colostrum, Transitional, Mature | Skim milk | NS | NS | BMI |
| Uysal et al. (35) | 50 | Turkey | Observational | Leptin | Mature | NS | 8 am-11 am | EP post-feed | BMI |
| Weyermann et al. (36) | 767 | Germany | Observational | Adiponectin, Leptin | Mature | Whole milk | NS | Full breast expression (HE/EP) pre-feed | Smoking |
| Young et al. (37) | 41 | USA | Observational | Insulin | Mature | Whole and skim milk | Fasted mid-feed | HE | Weight |
| Young et al. (38) | 48 | USA | Observational | Adiponectin, Leptin, Insulin | Mature | Skim milk | Mid feed | HE | BMI |
| Yu et al. (39) | 96 | China | Observational | Adiponectin, Leptin, Insulin, Ghrelin | Colostrum, Mature (foremilk, hindmilk) | NS | Colostrum – 8 am pre-feed, Mature – 2 pm & 4 pm pre-feed | Single breast expression (EP) | GDM, BMI |
| Zamanillo et al. (40) | 59 | Spain | Observational | Adiponectin, Leptin | Mature | NS | 9 am-2 pm | Full breast expression, (HE, manual breast pump) | BMI |
| Zielinkska-Pukos et al. (41) | 38 | Poland | Observational | Cortisol | Mature | NS | 4 time periods: 6 am-12 pm, 12 pm-6 pm, 6 pm-12 am, 12 am-6 am | Pre- and post-feeding (HE/EP) | Age, BMI, postpartum depression score, percieved stress scale |
HM, human milk; RCT, randomized controlled trial; EP, electronic pump; HE, hand expressed; BMI, body mass index; GDM, gestational diabetes mellitus; NS, not stated.