Table 3.

Applications and the route of exposure of various plasticizer compounds leading to adverse health effects.

Plasticizer compounds	Applications	Exposure route	Health effects	References
Phthalates	- Excipients in certain medications. - Scent retainers - Children's toys.	- Leaching into the environment, indoor air. - From packaging materials into food and beverages.	- Endocrine disruption. - ADHD in kids and poorer sperm quality in men.	[[21], [22], [23],24,25,26]
Bisphenol A (BPA)	Plasticizers for polycarbonate plastics and epoxy resins are used in food containers, dental implants, water pipes, toys etc.	- Leaching from polycarbonate plastics and epoxy resins into food, and beverages. - Hydrolysis of BPA under high temperature or pH.	- Endocrine disruption. - Linked to cancer, cardiovascular diseases, and disruptions in neuroendocrine and reproductive systems.	[27,28,29]
Alkylphenol Ethoxylates (APEs)	Used in emulsifiers, detergents, solubilizers, antistatic agents, and dispersing agents in various domestic, industrial, and agricultural products.	-Biodegradation into more toxic substances. - Ingestion of contaminated food and drinking water. - Dermal absorption.	Degraded APEs produce toxic compounds which have estrogenic and anti-androgenic effects.	[[30], [31], [32], [33],34,35]
PBDEs	Flame retardants in furniture, textiles, electric and electronic devices.	Leaching from products during use, disposal or recycling.	- Interference with thyroid hormone signalling. - Endocrine disruptor.	[[36], [37], [38], [39], [40], [41]].
Organotin	Biocides, wood preservatives, antifouling paints, agricultural fungicides.	Transfer through contact, contaminated dietary sources.	Endocrine disruption.	[42,43,44,45].