Table 4.

Importance of the hypothalamus, pituitary gland and the different hypothalamus-pituitary axes, focusing on the disruptive effects of EDCs on their functioning.

Aspect	Importance	Effect of EDCs	Effects on human	References
Hypothalamus	Regulates various physiological processes by secreting hormones that influence pituitary activities.	Activates toll-like receptors leading to inflammatory responses, suppresses acetylcholinesterase function and alters neurotransmitter levels.	Disruption in signalling pathways, affecting growth, lactation, metabolism, and milk supply.	[46,47]
Pituitary	Releases hormones under the influence of hypothalamic tropic hormones.	Alters pituitary hormone activation (e.g., prolactin, TSH).	Delayed formation of secondary sexual characteristics, infertility, stunted fetal development.	[48,49].
Hypothalamus-Pituitary-Thyroid Axis (HPT)	Regulates thyroid function by controlling TSH levels.	Significantly alters thyroid stimulating hormone levels which affects the homeostasis and the glucose levels.	Homeostasis disruption, glucose level alteration, thyroid function impairment.	[50,[51], [52], [53], [54]]
Hypothalamus-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis (HPA)	Regulates stress response and metabolism.	Affects hormonal secretions from the cortex and medulla regions.	Impaired stress response, Lowers adrenal gland weight.	[[55], [56], [57], [58]]
Hypothalamus-Pituitary-Gonadal Axis (HPG)	Regulates reproductive functions in both males and females.	Decreases kisspeptin levels in zebrafish, alters GnRH levels, and disrupts FSH and LH ratio.	Male and female infertility, stunted fetal development, disruption of secondary sexual characteristics.	[59,60]