Table 1.

List of global agencies and initiatives for monitoring zoonotic outbreaks and other public health threats.

Program	Key area(s)	Aim/objective(s)	Reference
Africa Centres for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Institute of Pathogen Genomics	‘Hub-and-spoke’ model advancing data collection and surveillance capacity at the regional level.	To improve disease monitoring and public health collaborations by establishing integrated, cross-continent laboratory networks that are equipped with the tools, human resource capacity, and data infrastructure needed to fully harness essential genome sequencing technologies.	[40]
ArboNET	National arboviral surveillance system managed by the CDC.	Maintains data on arboviral infections among human viraemic blood donors, non-human mammals, sentinel animals, dead birds, and mosquitoes.	[41]
Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness Innovations (CEPI)	An innovative global partnership with a blend of financial commitments.	To finance and coordinate the development of new vaccines to prevent and control infectious disease outbreaks.	[42]
Connecting Organisations for Regional Disease Surveillance (CORDS)	CORDS is a program of Ending Pandemics, comprised of six regional member networks, working in 28 countries in Africa, Asia, the Middle East and Europe.	To detect and control the spread of infectious diseases by catalyzing exchange and collaboration among regional surveillance networks globally.	[43]
Global Disease Detection Program (GDD)	Program for developing and strengthening global public health capacity to rapidly identify and contain disease threats globally.	To detect, monitor, and support responses to global public health events of international importance by conducting event-based surveillance (EBS).	[44]
Global Food Infections Network (GFN)	Network to better detect and control foodborne and other enteric infections through integrated laboratory-based surveillance, and collaboration among human, veterinary, and food sectors.	Aims in building capacity to monitor, detect, analyze, characterize and respond to outbreaks of foodborne disease. It also provides training courses focus on regional or national needs ranging from basic to advanced laboratory practices, surveillance, outbreak detection and response, and attribution.	[45]
Global Health Security Agenda (GHSA)	An international effort to prevent, detect, and respond to infectious disease threats.	Aims to catalyze a collaborative, multisectoral initiative uniting countries, regions, international organizations, and the non-governmental sectors to enhance and expedite global health security efforts.	[46]
Global Influenza Surveillance and Response System (GISRS)	Global system focused on surveillance, preparedness and response for seasonal, pandemic and zoonotic influenza.	Aims for effective collaboration and sharing of viruses, data and benefits based on member states' commitment to a global public health model.	[47]
Global Initiative on Sharing All Influenza Data (GISAID)	An initiative to provide access to genomic data of influenza viruses.	Promotes the rapid sharing of data from all influenza viruses and the coronavirus causing COVID-19.	[48]
Global Outbreak Alert and Response Network (GOARN)	A WHO network that responds to acute public health events with the deployment of staff and resources to affected countries.	To examine and study diseases, evaluate the risks, and improve international capability to deal with diseases. The aim is to deliver rapid and effective support to prevent and control infectious diseases outbreaks and public health emergencies when requested.	[49]
Global Public Health Intelligence Network (GPHIN)	Electronic public health early warning system developed by Canada's Public Health Agency, and is part of the WHO GOARN.	Monitors internet media, such as news wires and websites, in nine languages in order to help detect and report potential disease or other health threats around the world.	[50]
Global Virome Project (GVP)	An innovative network partnership among public, private, philanthropic, and civil organizations to detect the planet's unknown viral threats to human health and food security to prepare for and stop future epidemics.	GVP is a strategic response to better predict, prevent, and respond to future viral pandemic threat. Through a collaborative, multidisciplinary approach, this global consortium fosters coordination, allowing partners and participants to leverage shared global and regional strategies while retaining the flexibility to address local needs.	[51]
International Food Safety Authorities Network (INFOSAN)	A global voluntary network, led jointly by FAO and WHO, comprises national Food Safety authorities from almost all member States of both organizations.	Aims to strengthen prevention, preparedness and response to food safety incidents and emergencies through fostering a global community of practice among food safety professionals.	[52]
International Pathogen Surveillance Network (IPSN)	A global network of pathogen genomic surveillance actors, brought together by the WHO Hub for Pandemic and Epidemic Intelligence.	Aims to accelerates progress in pathogen genomics and enhance public health decision-making by collecting, sequencing, and analyzing pathogen genomes to gain insights into their genetics, evolution, and transmission.	[53]
Pan American Center for Foot-and-Mouth Disease and Veterinary Public Health (PANAFTOSA/VPH)	A specialized center of the Pan American Health Organization/WHO linked to the communicable diseases' prevention, control, and elimination department.	Coordinates the Veterinary Public Health program, offering technical cooperation for zoonosis prevention, surveillance, control, and elimination, as well as promoting initiatives to enhance food safety systems and eradicate foot-and-mouth disease.	[54]
PREDICT	PREDICT empowered global surveillance for pathogens with zoonotic potential by enhancing capabilities for detecting and identifying potentially pandemic viruses. This initiative is a key component of USAID's Emerging Pandemic Threats program.	Strengthening worldwide monitoring and laboratory diagnostic capabilities for both known and newly discovered viruses within several important virus groups, such as filoviruses (including ebolaviruses), influenza viruses, paramyxoviruses, and coronaviruses.	[55]
Surveillance system for attack on health care (SSA)	Global and standardized monitoring system coordinated by WHO for the collection of primary data about attacks on health care.	The purpose is to systematically collect and make available data on attacks on health care, and their immediate impact on health care in countries facing emergencies.	[56]
The Global Early Warning System (GLEWS)	Joint mission of WHO, FAO, and WOAH to integrate alert mechanisms for emerging zoonotic diseases in the Global Early Warning System for major animal disease.	Aims to notify the global community and stakeholders about the emerging zoonoses, facilitate prediction, prevention, and control efforts, and deploy collaborative field missions for outbreak assessment and containment.	[57]
The Program for Monitoring Emerging Diseases (ProMED)	ProMED is the largest publicly available system conducting global reporting of infectious disease outbreaks.	Rapid global dissemination of information on outbreaks of infectious diseases and acute exposures to toxins that affect human health (including those in animals and in plants grown for food or animal feed).	[58]
The UK's Infection Innovation Consortium (iiCON)	Public-private-philanthropic partnership for pandemic preparedness by accelerating the discovery and development of new treatments, diagnostics, vaccines, and preventative products for infectious diseases.	Accelerate the research and development pipeline for drugs, vaccines, diagnostics, and public health interventions to address high-priority pandemics such as AMR and coronavirus.	[59]
Unitaid	A global health initiative collaborates to innovate disease prevention, diagnosis, and treatment in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), with a primary focus on tuberculosis, malaria, HIV/AIDS, and associated deadly co-infections.	Finances late-stage research and development of novel drugs, diagnostics, and disease prevention tools. Also, facilitates data generation to support usage guidelines and promotes the availability of cost-effective generic medicines in LMICs.	[60]
WHO Mediterranean Zoonosis Control Programme (MZCP)	To strengthen zoonoses prevention and control, it collaborates closely with the WHO Regional Office for the Eastern Mediterranean, specialized WHO collaborating centers, national institutions, and maintains strong ties with the WOAH and FAO.	Aims to promote national and regional programs, strengthen collaboration between animal and public health services, offer training courses, support public health education, and foster international cooperation among MZCP member nations	[61]
WOAH and FAO global network of expertise on animal influenza: OFFLU	To promptly identify and analyze emerging strains of influenza viruses in animal populations.	Aims to reduce the negative impacts of animal influenza viruses by promoting effective collaboration between animal health experts and human health sector. OFFLU is to collaborate with the WHO on issues related to the animal–human interface, including pandemic preparedness for the early preparation of human vaccines.	[62]
World Animal Health Information System (WAHIS)	WOAH offers computer tools for free global animal health data access via WAHIS portal, enhancing transparency in the world animal health situation.	Aims to provide an early warning system for listed and emerging diseases, a monitoring system for regular updates on these diseases, and collects additional data from national authorities on animal diseases impacting both human and animal populations, as well as veterinary service capacities.	[63]
Zoonotic Disease Integrated Action (ZODIAC)	An initiative by International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) to help countries prevent pandemics caused by zoonotic agents.	Aims to strengthen the preparedness and capabilities of Member States to rapidly detect and timely respond to the outbreaks.	[64]