Table 1.

Studies demonstrating antiremodeling effects and reduction in heart failure by total ginseng extracts and individual ginsenosides in various experimental models and their proposed mechanisms of action.

Ginseng or ginsenoside	Experimental model	Proposed mechanism(s)	Ref
P notoginseng	Ang II induced NRVM hypertrophy	antioxidant	[11]
	NE induced NRVM hypertrophy	antioxidant	[12]
	ET-1 induced NRVM hypertrophy	antioxidant	[13, 14]
	Rat CAL	PPAR$\alpha$ activation	[15]
	Rat CAL	enhanced autophagy	[16]
	Chymase overexpressing mice	modulating the TGF-$\beta$/Smad pathway	[18]
P ginseng	Adriamycin treated rats	antioxidant	[24]
	Monocrotaline induced RVH in rats	calcineurin/MAPK inhibition	[37]
P quinquefolius	PE induced NRVM hypertrophy	NHE1 downregulation	[27]
	Rat CAL	NHE1 downregulation	[27]
	Rat CAL	calcineurin/NFAT3 inhibition	[28]
	Ang II induced NRVM hypertrophy	calcineurin/NFAT3 inhibition	[28]
	ET-1 induced NRVM hypertrophy	calcineurin/NFAT3 inhibition	[28]
	PE induced NRVM hypertrophy	calcineurin/NFAT3 inhibition	[28]
	Isoproterenol infusion in rats	decreased PKA and CREB phosphorylation	[30]
	ISO induced NRVM hypertrophy	decreased PKA and CREB phosphorylation	[30]
	Ang II infusion in rats	improved FA and glucose oxidation	[32]
	Leptin induced NRVM hypertrophy	RhoA/ROCK inhibition	[33]
Notoginsenoside R1	Isoproterenol infusion in mice	reduced inflammatory response	[19]
	db/db diabetic mice/AGE-treated H9c2 cells	activation of estrogen $\alpha$ receptor	[20]
Ginsenoside Re	Isoproterenol infusion in rats	decreased TGF-$\beta$1/Smad3	[31]
Ginsenoside Rb3	Mouse CAL	PPAR$\alpha$ activation	[35]
	Rat TAB	PPAR$\alpha$ activation	[36]
Ginsenoside Rb1	Monocrotaline induced RVH in rats	calcineurin/NFAT3/GATA-4 inhibition	[38]
	DCM in TG mice	STAT3 inhibition	[39]
	db/db diabetic mice	adipokine inhibition	[40]
	Ang II infusion in mice	decreased inflammatory response	[41]
	Aged mice	NF-κB modulation	[42]
	PGF2$\alpha$ induced NRVM hypertrophy	calcineurin/NFAT3/GATA-4 inhibition	[43]
Ginsenoside Rg1	Rat TAB	calcineurin/NFAT3/GATA-4 and MAPK inhibition	[44]
	Rat TAB	increased NO generation	[45]
	Rat TAB	increased HIF-1/VEGF expression, p-Akt activation and p38 MAPK inhibition	[46]
	STZ diabetic rat	reduced oxidative stress	[47]
	Mouse CAL	increased mitophagy	[48]
	Hydrogen peroxide treated H9c2 cells	reduced apoptosis	[48]
Ginsenoside Rg2	Mouse CAL	increased Akt phosphorylation	[49]
Ginsenoside Rg3	Rat TAB/Ang II induced NRVM hypertrophy	reduced oxidative stress	[50]
	Mouse TAB	improved ${\mathrm{Ca}}^{2+}$ homeostasis	[51]
Ginsenoside Rd	Mouse TAB/PE induced NRVM hypertrophy	decreased oxidative stress/MAPK signaling/inflammatory response	[52]

Table represents main findings of the specific study. See text for details. Definitions of abbreviated terms as follows: AGE, advanced glycation end products; Akt, protein kinase B; Ang II, angiotensin II; CAL, coronary artery ligation; CREB, cyclic AMP response element-binding protein; DCM, dilated cardiomyopathy; ET-1, endothelin 1; HIF-1, hypoxia-inducible factor-1; FA, fatty acid; MAPK, mitogen activated protein kinase; NE, norepinephrine; NFAT, nuclear factor of activated T cells; NF-$\kappa$B, nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells; NHE1, sodium hydrogen exchange isoform 1; NO, nitric oxide; NRVM, neonatal rat ventricular myocytes; PE, phenylephrine; PGF2$\alpha$, prostaglandin F2 alpha; PKA, protein kinase A; PPAR$\alpha$, proliferator-activated receptor alpha; RhoA/ROCK, Ras homolog gene family, member A/Rho-associated, coiled-coil containing protein kinase; RVH, right ventricular hypertrophy; STAT3, signal transducer and activator of transcription 3; STZ, streptozotocin; TAB, thoracic aorta banding; TGF-$\beta$/Smad, transforming growth factor beta/Smad protein; VEGF, vascular endothelial growth factor; ISO, isoproterenol; GATA-4, GATA-binding protein 4.