Table 1.

Characteristics of immune dysregulation in sepsis.

	Hyperinflammation	Immunosuppression
Factors	Pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-1β) DAMPs (HMGB1, HSPs, DNA, and RNA) NETosis Complement activation	Anti-inflammatory cytokines (IL-4, IL-10, IL-37, and TGF-β) Upregulation of negative costimulatory molecules (PD1, PD-L1, CTLA4, and TIM3) Proliferation of immunosuppressor cells (MDSCs and FoxP3+ T regulatory cells)
Main cause of death 1	Cytokine storm-induced organ dysfunction	Weakened clearance of infection Activation of secondary infection
Clinical trial	TLR inhibitors (Eritoran and TAK-242) AP CytoSorb Polymyxin B Anti-TNF-α monoclonal antibody IL-1β receptor inhibitor IL-6 antagonist IVIg Glucocorticoids	PD-L1 inhibitor GM-CSF

¹ Disease-aggravating factors.