Table 4.

Table summarizing the principal air pollutants investigated.

Pollutant	Characteristics	Health Effects
PM2.5 and PM10	Particulate matter originating from primary emissions or secondary particles formed through physical and chemical reactions. PM2.5 and PM10 are extensively studied pollutants.	Heightens the risk of air pollution-related diseases, including acute respiratory tract infections, cardiovascular disease, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and lung cancer [21,22,23].
O3	Formed through complex photochemical reactions in the troposphere, particularly in the presence of pollutants and sunlight.	Acute effects include throat dryness, pharyngitis, bronchitis, reduced pulmonary bactericidal capacity, eye irritation, and cardiovascular effects. Chronic effects include fibrosis, teratogenic effects, and impacts on the reproductive system [24,25,26].
CO	Generated through incomplete combustion, characterized by its colorless and odorless nature.	Forms carboxyhemoglobin, leading to hypoxia, ischemia, and cardiovascular diseases. Symptoms of carbon monoxide poisoning include headaches, dizziness, weakness, nausea, vomiting, and loss of consciousness [25,27,28,29,30,31,32].
NO2	Emitted from combustion, primarily in urban areas, by automobile engines and power plants.	Causes irritation to the respiratory system, exacerbating respiratory symptoms, and resulting in hospitalizations. Prolonged exposure increases the risk of asthma development and susceptibility to respiratory infections, leading to respiratory diseases, breathlessness, bronchospasm, and pulmonary edema [27,28].
SO2	Emitted from the combustion of fossil fuels and industrial activities.	Adversely affects the respiratory system, leading to bronchitis, bronchospasm, increased mucus production, and aggravation of existing respiratory conditions [32].