Table 1.

Published prehabilitation exercise interventions, protocols, and outcomes.

Exercise Intervention	Author (Year)	Intervention Protocol	Outcome
Aerobic exercise (Cycle ergometer, treadmill, walking)	Arthur et al. (2000) [26]	Supervised aerobics, 40–70% max heart rate, 90 min 2×/week	Decreased hospital LOS, improved QoL
	Rosenfeldt et al. (2011) [36]	Aerobics, 50% VO2max, one hour, supervised 2×/week for ×2 weeks, then 30 min 4×/week at home	No difference in LOS or QoL
	Tung et al. (2012) [37]	Supervised aerobics, 50–60% VO2max, one-hour 2×/week for 2 weeks	Decreased noninvasive ventilation and time to ambulation, improved QoL
	Sawatzky et al. (2014) [38]	Supervised aerobics, 85% max capacity, one-hour 2×/week until surgery, mean of 8 weeks	Improved 6-min walk test and gait speed, no difference in LOS
	Steinmetz et al. (2020) [2]	Supervised aerobics, 70% peak oxygen uptake, two 10-min workouts with 15 min of light gymnastics for 2 weeks	Improved 6-min walk test and Timed-Up-and-Go time, improved QoL
	Akowuah et al. (2023) [22] *	Aerobic and respiratory muscle training, two supervised one-hour sessions/week ×4 weeks, home exercise 45 minutes daily, 2×/day incentive spirometer	No difference in 6-min walk test or postoperative mortality, improved maximal inspiratory pressure
Strength training (Rowing, wall push-ups, heel raises, bicep curls, sit-to-stand)	Waite et al. (2017) [28]	Strength and balance, home, 3×/week	Reduced frailty, improved 6-min walk test and functional capacity
Respiratory muscle training (Incentive spirometry, deep breathing, forced expiration)	Hulzebos et al. (2006) [32]	Respiratory muscle, 20 min/day, supervised weekly, mean of 8 weeks	Reduced respiratory complications, reduced pneumonia, shorter LOS
	Savci et al. (2011) [34]	Respiratory muscle, 30 min 2×/day, 5 days prior and 5 days after surgery	Increased strength, improved 6-min walk test, decreased ICU LOS
	Sobrinho et al. (2014) [35]	Respiratory muscle, supervised once daily until surgery	Shorter LOS, improved respiratory mechanics

* Mixed intervention consisting of aerobic exercise and respiratory muscle training. Abbreviations: length of stay (LOS), quality of life (QoL), maximal oxygen consumption (VO₂max), ICU (intensive care unit).