Table 3.

GAL’s immunomodulatory mechanisms.

Condition/Cell Type	Mechanism of Action	Key Findings	Reference
Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis (EAE) Model	Inhibits mononuclear cell infiltration, reduces T cell proliferation and differentiation (Th1 and Th17 cells), and impairs dendritic cell function	Alleviated autoimmune encephalomyelitis	[87]
LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 Macrophage Cells	Downregulates COX-2, reduces NO and proinflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6), and inhibits IRAK-1, JAK/STAT pathway, MAPK (p38 and ERK), and NF-κB	Reduced inflammation	[94]
Atopic Dermatitis (AD) Model	Reduces infiltration of inflammatory cells (eosinophils, mast cells), decreases histamine levels, inhibits Th1 and Th2 cytokines, and reduces serum IgE and IgG2a	Reduced inflammation	[154]
Ovalbumin-(OVA-) Induced Airway Inflammation Model	Reduced total leukocytes (eosinophils, neutrophils, and lymphocytes) and downregulated the production of IgE	Alleviate induced airway hyperresponsiveness and inflammation	[158]
Neutrophils	Inhibits FcγRs and CRs activation, and reduces myeloperoxidase and horseradish peroxidase activity	Decreased ROS production, reduced tissue damage	[176]
Human Mast Cells (HMC)-1	Downregulates JNK, p38, and NF-κB pathways, suppresses histamine release and reduces activation of Caspase-1	Reduced inflammation	[177]
Concanavalin A (ConA)-induced Hepatitis (CIH) Model	Suppresses infiltration of inflammatory cells (neutrophils, macrophages, T cells), inhibits T cell activation via STAT1 pathway, and reduces proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines	Reduced inflammation	[178]
Bleomycin-Induced Pulmonary Fibrosis Model	Reduced the number of CD4+ and CD8+ T cells and dendritic cells	Alleviate pulmonary fibrosis	[179]
Dendritic Cells (DCs)	Promotes tolerogenic DCs (tolDCs) and stimulates regulatory T cells (Tregs)	Skews DCs towards tolerogenic phenotype and suppresses inflammatory T cell responses	[180]
Myocardial Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury	Induces autophagic flux via PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway, increases anti-inflammatory M2 macrophages, and decreases proinflammatory M1 macrophages	Reduced inflammation	[181]