Table 1.
Baseline demographic and clinical characteristics of study participants.
| All participants (n = 235) | DSF (n = 117) | Control (n = 118) | p-value | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Gender | 0.203 | |||
| Male | 96 (40.9) | 43 (36.8) | 53 (44.9) | |
| Female | 139 (59.1) | 74 (63.2) | 65 (55.1) | |
| Age (years) | 54.0 ± 0.5 | 54.2 ± 0.8 | 53.8 ± 0.7 | 0.623 |
| Ethnic group, n (%) | 0.842 | |||
| Chinese | 42 (17.9) | 18 (15.4) | 24 (20.3) | |
| Malay | 36 (15.3) | 18 (15.4) | 18 (15.3) | |
| Indian | 66 (28.1) | 36 (30.8) | 30 (25.4) | |
| Thai | 87 (37.0) | 43 (36.8) | 44 (37.3) | |
| Other | 4 (1.7) | 2 (1.7) | 2 (1.7) | |
| Highest level of education, n (%) | 0.727 | |||
| No formal education | 8 (3.4) | 6 (5.1) | 2 (1.7) | |
| Primary school or equivalent | 36 (15.3) | 17 (14.5) | 19 (16.1) | |
| Secondary or middle school or equivalent | 107 (45.5) | 53 (45.3) | 54 (45.8) | |
| Diploma or high school or equivalent | 40 (17.0) | 20 (17.1) | 20 (16.9) | |
| University & above | 44 (18.7) | 21 (17.9) | 23 (19.5) | |
| Height (cm) | 160.78 ± 0.58 | 159.66 ± 0.72 | 161.89 ± 0.91 | 0.046 |
| Body weight (kg) | 73.54 ± 0.76 | 72.59 ± 0.94 | 74.47 ± 1.18 | 0.138 |
| BMI (kg/m2) | 28.37 ± 0.21 | 28.45 ± 0.30 | 28.29 ± 0.30 | 0.705 |
| BMI category, n (%) | 0.956 | |||
| 23.0 to <27.5 | 98 (41.7) | 49 (41.9) | 49 (41.5) | |
| 27.5 to <35.0 | 137 (58.3) | 68 (58.1) | 69 (58.5) | |
| Hip circumference (cm) | 101.84 ± 0.50 | 101.97 ± 0.74 | 101.72 ± 0.66 | 0.751 |
| Waist circumference (cm) | 96.17 ± 0.64 | 95.72 ± 0.89 | 96.62 ± 0.93 | 0.376 |
| HbA1c category, n (%) | 0.837 | |||
| >7.0 to 8.0% | 133 (56.6) | 67 (57.3) | 66 (55.9) | |
| >8.0 to <10.0% | 102 (43.4) | 50 (42.7) | 52 (44.1) | |
| HbA1c (%) | 7.94 ± 0.05 | 7.93 ± 0.06 | 7.95 ± 0.07 | 0.821 |
| Fasting blood glucose (mmol/L) | 7.59 ± 0.12 | 7.54 ± 0.18 | 7.64 ± 0.17 | 0.665 |
| Diabetes duration (years) | 9.2 ± 0.4 | 10.0 ± 0.6 | 8.4 ± 0.5 | 0.041 |
| History of gestational diabetes, n (%) | 0.671 | |||
| Yes | 30 (21.6) | 17 (23.0) | 13 (20.0) | |
| No | 109 (78.4) | 57 (77.0) | 52 (80.0) | |
| Number of hospital admissions in the last 6 months | 1.000 | |||
| None | 229 (97.4) | 114 (97.4) | 115 (97.5) | |
| 1 | 5 (2.1) | 3 (2.6) | 2 (1.7) | |
| 2 | 1 (0.4) | 0 (0.0) | 1 (0.8) | |
| >2 | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | |
| Glucose-lowering drugs * , n (%) | ||||
| Metformin | 231 (98.3) | 116 (99.1) | 115 (97.5) | 0.622 |
| Sulfonylureas | 144 (61.3) | 72 (61.5) | 72 (61.0) | 1.000 |
| SGLT-2 inhibitors | 43 (18.3) | 19 (16.2) | 24 (20.3) | 0.500 |
| DPP-4 inhibitors | 44 (18.7) | 23 (19.7) | 21 (17.8) | 0.741 |
| Thiazolidinediones | 34 (14.5) | 17 (14.5) | 17 (14.4) | 1.000 |
| GLP-1 analogues | 9 (3.8) | 4 (3.4) | 5 (4.2) | 1.000 |
| Alpha glucosidase inhibitor | 4 (1.7) | 2 (1.7) | 2 (1.7) | 1.000 |
| IPAQ total physical activity MET min per week | 3374.8 ± 284.7 | 3545.5 ± 370. 6 | 3197.8 ± 435.5 | 0.571 |
For continuous variables, mean values ± SEM are reported; for categorical variables, n (%) is reported. For some variables, sample sizes are smaller than the overall stated sample sizes. *Participants may be taking multiple drugs. BMI, body mass index; DPP-4, dipeptidyl peptidase 4; DSF, diabetes-specific formula; GLP-1, glucagon-like peptide-1; HbA1c, glycated hemoglobin; IPAQ, International Physical Activity Questionnaire; MET, metabolic equivalent task; SEM, standard error of mean; SGLT-2, sodium-glucose cotransporter 2.