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. 2024 Apr 8;34(4):682–695. doi: 10.1093/eurpub/ckae058

Table 2.

Summary of study characteristics

Author, year Study design Country Age group Range or mean (SD) age Sample size Target population (Condition) Type of intervention Quality rating
Carrere et. al. 202232

  • Non-RCT

  • (Quasi-experiment with control, Prospective)

 Spain 18 and over

  • Year of birth, SD

  • Intervention: 1965 (15.9) Control: 1969 (15.9)

  • Total n = 394

  • Intervention n = 246 Control n = 148

 People who are energy poor, defined as those who are unable to ensure socially and materially required levels of domestic energy services Behavioural Poor
Pollard et. al. 201935

  • Non-RCT

  • (Cross-sectional, Prospective)

 UK 18 and over The majority of participants completing the questionnaire (73%) were aged over 65 years of age. n = 22 households Fuel poor, households that struggle with the costs of keeping their home warm due to the cost of fuel and energy efficiency of the property Behavioural Poor
Saeki et. al. 201531 RCT (Prospective) Japan 60 and over 71.6 (6.6) years n = 359 Aged 60 and over living at home Behavioural Fair
Bray et. al. 201719 Non-RCT (Historical cohort and cost analysis, Prospective) UK 25 and over

  • 25–34: 15 (6.6%)

  • 35–44: 23 (10.1%)

  • 44–54: 36 (15.8%)

  • 55–65: 43 (18.9%)

  • 65–74: 44 (19.3%)

  • 75+: 66 (29.9%)

 228 households Social housing Structural Poor
Edwards et. al. 201622

  • Non-RCT

  • (Historical cohort, Prospective)

 UK 25 and over

  • 25–34: 15 (6.6%),

  • 35–44: 23 (10.1%)

  • 44–54: 36 (15.8%)

  • 55–65: 43 (18.9%)

  • 65–74: 44 (19.3%)

  • 75+: 66 (29.9%)

 228 households Families living in social housing in Sunderland. Structural Fair
Curl and Kearns 201520

  • Non-RCT

  • (Longitudinal study, Retrospective)

 UK 65 and over

  • Control, no improvements (n = 602): 27.8%

  • Intervention groups:

  • Central heating (n = 374) 22.2%

  • Kitchen and bathroom (n = 706) 29.5%

  • Doors (n = 483) 26.5%

  • Fabric works (n = 575) 31.3%

  • Whole sample (n = 1993) 28.3%

  • Wave 1, 2006 n = 6003

  • Wave 2, 2008 n = 4869

  • Wave 3, 2011 n = 4270

  • Time 1 sample matched Wave 1 and 2 n = 1933

  • Time 2 sample matched Wave 2 and 3 n = 1933

 Respiratory and circulatory diseases Structural Fair
Curl et. al. 201521

  • Non-RCT

  • (Longitudinal study, Retrospective)

 UK 65 and over

  • Control, no improvements (n = 602): 27.8%

  • Intervention groups:

  • Central heating (n = 374) 22.2%

  • Kitchen and bathroom (n = 706) 29.5%

  • Doors (n = 483) 26.5%

  • Fabric works (n = 575) 31.3%

  • Whole sample (n = 1993) 28.3%

  • Wave 1, 2006 n = 6003

  • Wave 2, 2008 n = 4869

  • Wave 3, 2011 n = 4270

  • Time 1 sample matched Wave 1 and 2 n = 1933

  • Time 2 sample matched Wave 2 and 3 n = 1934

 Social housing Structural Fair
Fyfe 202123

  • Non-RCT

  • (Quasi-experimental cohort study, Retrospective)

 New Zealand All ages, extracted outcomes for 65 and over

  • Intervention:

  • 0–4 n = 66 634 (13.44%)

  • 11–14 n = 66 392 (13.39%)

  • 15–24 n = 68 947 (13.9%)

  • 25–34 n = 76 106 (15.35%)

  • 35–44 n = 71 114 (15.35%)

  • 45–54 n = 52 237 (10.53%)

  • 55–64 n = 40 911 (8.25%)

  • 75–84 n = 17 756 (3.58%)

  • 85+ n = 5342 (0.88%)

  • Control:

  • 0–4 n = 58 649 (11.52%)

  • 11–14 n = 72 815 (14.31%)

  • 15–24 n = 79 335 (15.59%)

  • 25–34 n = 76 605 (15.05%)

  • 35–44 n = 70 157 (13.79%)

  • 45–54 n = 55 994 (11%)

  • 55–64 n = 42 495 (8.35%)

  • 75–84 n = 17 843 (3.51%)

  • 85+ n = 5413 (1.06%)

  • n = 235 772 houses

  • Intervention n = 495 864

  • Control n = 508 931

  • Study population: n = 1 004 825

  • Deaths during the study: n = 16 337

 Residents of owner-occupied and private rental dwellings Structural Fair
Telfar-Barnard et. al. 201124 Non-RCT (Cohort study and cost analysis, Retrospective) New Zealand All ages, extracted outcome for 65 and over

  • Adults aged 19–64:

  • 63 121 (58.76%)

  • Older people (65+):

  • 18 103 (16.85%)

 Total treatment cohort at that time = 107 421 Structural Fair
Poortinga et. al. 201825 Non-RCT (Cohort analysis, Retrospective) UK All ages NA n = 25 908 individuals living in 4968 intervention Social housing and COPD, cardiovascular conditions Structural Fair
Poortinga et. al. 201825,26,27 Non-RCT (Quasi-experimental before and after study, Prospective) UK All ages

  • ≤ 25 years: 1.6% (14/776)

  • 26–35: 6.4% (50/776)

  • 36–45: 10.1% (78/776)

  • 46–54: 12.6% (98/776)

  • 55–64: 27.3% (213/776)

  • ≥ 65: 41.6% (323/776)

  • n = 352 intervention

  • n = 418 control

 Hard-to-heat, hard-to-treat Social housing and COPD, cardiovascular conditions Structural Poor
Poortinga et. al. 201825,26,27

  • Non-RCT

  • (Cost analysis, Prospective)

 UK All ages

  • ≤ 25 years: 1.6% (14/776)

  • 26–35: 6.4% (50/776)

  • 36–45: 10.1% (78/776)

  • 46–54: 12.6% (98/776)

  • 55–64: 27.3% (213/776)

  • ≥ 65: 41.6% (323/776)

 NA Social housing Structural Fair
Heyman et al. 201128

  • RCT

  • (Prospective)

 UK 20 and over NA 237 households Households in full or marginal fuel poverty Structural Poor
Liddell et. al. 201133

  • Non-RCT

  • (Cohort and cost analysis, Prospective)

 UK 25 and over

  • Age 25–44:

  • Intervention: 32 493 Control: 265 619

  • Age 45–59:

  • Intervention: 17 823 Control: 162 098

  • Age 60+:

  • Intervention: 22 523 Control: 135 916

 165 686 households Houses in the private sector Structural Poor
Osman et. al. 201029 RCT (Prospective) UK 65 and over

  • All: 69.6 (8.5)

  • Intervention: 71 (10) Control: 68 (7.2)

  • Monitor: 69 (7.9)

 n = 178 Clinician-diagnosed COPD Structural Fair
Page et. al. 202230

  • RCT

  • (Cost analysis, Prospective)

 Australia 60 and over 74.8 (11.5)

  • n = 1312 individuals, 984 households

  • 2018:

  • n = 143 268 households

  • 2019:

  • n = 356 268 households

  • 2020:

  • n = 813 611 households

  • Control: n = 493

  • Intervention: n = =te

 Most participants had either never smoked (52%) or had given up >12 months ago (39%); only 3% were current smokers Structural Poor
Peralta et. al. 201734

  • Non-RCT

  • (Time-stratified case-crossover analysis, Retrospective)

 Spain 60 and over

  • Men:

  • No intervention: 69.18 (12.81)

  • Intervention: 72.65 (13.88)

  • Women:

  • No intervention: 75.52 (13.67)

  • Intervention: 78.68 (12.16)

 n = 2252 Deaths of people living in the studied blocks and occurred in the city during the cold periods. Structural Poor
Poortinga et. al. 201736

  • Non-RCT

  • (Cross-sectional study, Five-wave repeated, Prospective)

 UK All ages

  • Age under 36:

  • 15% (year 2009), 15% (2011), 15% (2012), 15% (2014), 12% (2016).

  • Age 36–45:

  • 12% (year 2009), 11% (2011), 10% (2012), 10% (2014), 10% (2016).

  • Age 46–54:

  • 11% (year 2009), 11% (2011), 12% (2012), 11% (2014), 12% (2016).

  • Age 55–64:

  • 17 (year 2009), 16 (2011), 17 (2012), 16 (2014), 16 (2016).

  • Age 65+:

  • 41 (year 2009), 44 (2011), 45 (2012), 48 (2014), 48 (2016).

 n = 10 009 Social housing Structural Fair
Preval et. al. 201737 Non-RCT (Quasi-experimental cohort study, Retrospective) New Zealand 60 and over

  • Circulatory

  • Insulation: 78.8 (6.9)

  • Heating: 78.3 (7.2)

  • Insulation and heating: 78.9 (7),

  • Control: 78.5 (7.2)

  • Respiratory

  • Insulation: 78.2 (7.3)

  • Heating: 78.3 (5.9)

  • Insulation and heating: 79.2 (8.0)

  • Control: 77.5 (7.2)

 n = 4848 Cardiovascular and respiratory-related hospitalization Structural Fair
Rodgers et. al. 201838

  • Non-RCT

  • (Longitudinal study, Retrospective)

 UK All ages, extracted outcome for 60 and over

  • Intervention:

  • <25 n = 13 943 (43.6%)

  • 25–39 n = 5435 (17%)

  • 40–49 n = 2922 (9.1%)

  • 50–59 n = 2655 (8.3%)

  • 60–69 n = 2774 (8.7%)

  • 70–79 n = 2362 (7.4%)

  • 80+ n = 1918 (6%)

  • Control:

  • <25 n = 81 899 (35.4%)

  • 25–39 n = 43 885 (19%)

  • 40–49 n = 29 393 (12.7%)

  • 50–59 n = 28 681 (12.4%)

  • 60–69 n = 22 767 (9.8%)

  • 70–79 n = 14 895 (6.4%)

  • 80+ n = 9680 (4.2%)

  • Intervention n = 32 009

  • Control n = 231 200

 Tenants aged 60 and over, cardiovascular, respiratory and injuries Structural Poor
Tonn et. al. 202339 Non-RCT (Quasi-experimental) USA 60 and over

  • Mean 64

  • Treatment: 60

  • Control: 60

  • 382 multifamily

  • buildings

  • n = 1921 households

  • n = 2964 persons

 Affordable multifamily building offered by property owners that had 5+ units. Structural Fair

COPD, clinician-diagnosed chronic obstructive pulmonary disease; NA, not applicable; RCT, randomized controlled trial; SD, standard deviation; UK, United Kingdom.

Green: RCTs, Orange: non-RCTs; Blue: linked studies.