Table 1.
Demographic characteristics of study group versus control group before interventions
| Data show mean ± standard deviation or % | Intervention group | Placebo group | P value |
|---|---|---|---|
| (N = 47) | (N = 50) | ||
| Demographic data | |||
| Age | 65.09 ± 5.13 | 64.22 ± 4.66 | 0.386 |
| Female (%) | 76.60% | 86.00% | 0.299 |
| Education years | 14.11 ± 2.31 | 13.46 ± 2.92 | 0.231 |
| Smoking (%) | 0.0% | 2.0% | 0.330 |
| Alcohol consumption (%) | 19.1% | 20.0% | 0.766 |
| CCI | 0.57 ± 0.9 | 0.68 ± 0.79 | 0.542 |
| Body composition and functional assessment | |||
| BMI | 22.86 ± 3.42 | 22.73 ± 2.77 | 0.830 |
| Waist circumference (cm) | 83.48 ± 10.22 | 82.66 ± 8.48 | 0.666 |
| Hip circumference (cm) | 94.82 ± 6.3 | 94.75 ± 4.76 | 0.950 |
| RASM (kg/m2) | 6.49 ± 0.94 | 6.26 ± 0.7 | 0.164 |
| Male | 7.76 ± 0.71 | 7.39 ± 0.63 | 0.293 |
| Female | 6.11 ± 0.61 | 6.06 ± 0.50 | 0.717 |
| Gait speed (m/s) | 1.75 ± 0.23 | 1.7 ± 0.32 | 0.465 |
| 6‐min walking distance (m) | 524.36 ± 58.49 | 532.34 ± 66.61 | 0.533 |
| Handgrip strength (kg) | 26.74 ± 6.54 | 24.74 ± 6.9 | 0.145 |
| 5‐time chair‐stand test (sec) | 7.62 ± 1.61 | 8.15 ± 2.06 | 0.164 |
| IPAQ (kcal) | 1689.75 ± 1304.55 | 1,340 ± 876.66 | 0.122 |
| MNA | 26.8 ± 2.14 | 27.26 ± 1.76 | 0.247 |
| MoCA | 27.64 ± 1.88 | 27.12 ± 2.48 | 0.251 |
| CESD | 2.62 ± 5.4 | 3.44 ± 6.15 | 0.487 |
| Laboratory data | |||
| Albumin (mg/dL) | 4.45 ± 0.22 | 4.44 ± 0.14 | 0.780 |
| ALT (IU/mL) | 24.81 ± 17.12 | 22.02 ± 7.15 | 0.293 |
| Creatinine (mg/dL) | 0.76 ± 0.13 | 0.74 ± 0.18 | 0.581 |
| Fasting glucose (mg/dL) | 92.81 ± 16.6 | 99.28 ± 31.33 | 0.211 |
| HOMA‐IR | 1.72 ± 1.15 | 1.93 ± 1.41 | 0.427 |
| Total cholesterol (mg/dL) | 196.26 ± 31.83 | 197.76 ± 28.15 | 0.805 |
| Triglyceride (mg/dL) | 105.32 ± 49.84 | 104.52 ± 44.07 | 0.933 |
| HDL (mg/dL) | 60.04 ± 16.21 | 61.94 ± 14.9 | 0.550 |
| LDL (mg/dL) | 114.94 ± 26.33 | 110.92 ± 22.31 | 0.419 |
| CRP (mg/dL) | 0.07 ± 0.1 | 0.16 ± 0.44 | 0.150 |
| DHEA‐S (μg/dL) | 97.11 ± 54.39 | 100.19 ± 45.8 | 0.763 |
| Leptin (pg/mL) | 7267.64 ± 4668.03 | 9163.26 ± 5674.23 | 0.131 |
| WBC (103/uL) | 4.91 ± 1.17 | 5.19 ± 1.2 | 0.249 |
| Hb (g/dL) | 13.83 ± 1.39 | 13.43 ± 1.01 | 0.103 |
| Myostatin (pg/mL) | 4281.87 ± 1549.26 | 4311.56 ± 1230.72 | 0.917 |
ALT, alanine transaminase; BMI, body mass index; CCI, Charlson Co‐morbidity Index; CES‐D, Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale; CRP, C‐reaction protein; DHEA‐S, dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate; Hb, haemoglobin; HDL, high‐density lipoprotein cholesterol; HOMA‐IR, homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance; IPAQ, The International Physical Activity Questionnaire; LDL, low‐density lipoprotein cholesterol; MNA, Mini‐Nutritional Assessment; MoCA, Montreal Cognitive Assessment; RASM, relative skeletal muscle index; WBC, white blood cell.