Table 1.

Clinical studies reporting on the potential association of inflammation with kidney dysfunction in people living with HIV (PLWH) on highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART)

Reference	Country	Type of study	Study population, including age	Race/ethnicity	Intervention, including HAART regimen and treatment duration	Main outcomes
Neuhaus et al., 2010 [21]	United States	Randomized Controlled Trial	PLWH on HAART (n = 287) from the Strategies for Management of Anti-Retroviral Therapy (SMART) study [22], with an average age of 40 years (28% female)	In the 33–44 years age group, the SMART study consisted mostly of Black (55.4%) and CARDIA study mostly of White (52.4%). In the 45–76 years age group, the SMART study consisted mostly of Black (49.2%), and MESA study consisted mostly of White (43.3%)	Received non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor (NNRTIs), or reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NRTIs) for 18 months	Biomarkers of inflammation like high sensitivity-C reactive protein (hs-CRP) and interleukin (IL)-6, as well that of kidney dysfunction (cystatin C) were consistently raised in PLWH, despite HAART
Gupta et al., 2013 [26]	United States	Randomized Controlled Trial	PLWH on HAART (n = 30), with an average age of 38 years (13% female)	Consisted mostly of Black (53% and 67% for the continuation and switch groups, respectively)	Received tenofovir (TDF)/ emtricitabine (FTC) / efavirenz (EFV) continued versus a group that switched to TDF/FTC plus raltegravir (RAL) at 400 mg twice daily and monitored up to 6 months	The decline in renal function was associated with reduction in total cholesterol, hs-CRP, serum alkaline phosphatase, sCD14 levels in the switching group compared with the continuation group. While the sCD163 levels significantly increased in the switching group
Gupta et al., 2015 [23]	United States	Randomized Controlled Trial	PLWH on HAART (n = 269) which is part of previous report [27], with an average age of 38 years (14% female)	Consisted mostly of White non-Hispanics (47%) and Hispanics (33%)	Received abacavir–lamivudine/ TDF/FTC plus EFV or ritonavir-boosted atazanavir (ATV/r) for up to 24 months	Estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR), using cystatin C-creatinine, urine protein: creatinine ratio (uPCR), and urine albumin: creatinine ratio (uACR) was correlated with markers of systemic inflammation prior to HAART. However, uPCR and eGFR remained significantly correlated with most of the assessed inflammatory markers even after HAART
Shinha et al., 2015 [24]	United states	Observational study	PLWH on HAART (n = 30), with an average age of 37 years (10% females)	Consisted mostly of Black (60%). All were of non-Hispanic or Latino ethnic origin	Received TDF/FTC/EFV as their initial regimen for at least 12 months	Urine interferon gamma inducible protein 10 and Beta-2 microglobulin (B2M) were significantly after receiving HAART
Ozanne et al., 2017 [28]	France	Observational study	PLWH on HAART (n = 756), with mean age of 51 years (24% female)	Not reported	Received dual regimes including two NRTIs + one ritonavir boosted protease inhibitor or NNRTIs, and others for at least 24 months	Increased inflammation (high CIADIS weight score) was associated with rapid decreased in renal function in confirmed eGFR < 60 mL/min/1.73m3
Wijting et al., 2019 [25]	Netherlands	Randomized Controlled Trial	PLWH on HAART (n = 95), with an average age of 46 years (12%)	Consisted mostly of Caucasian (82.1%)	Received TDF-based regimen and switched to dolutegravir monotherapy and monitored for up to 12 months	In patients on prior TDF, proteinuria improved, but proximal tubular dysfunction proportions did not change. However, serum inflammation parameters such as CRP and T-cell-ratio remained stable