Extended Data Fig. 10. Timing and characteristics of exhumation in Eastern Brazil and AFT and AHe ages.

a, Map of Eastern Brazil showing AFT and AHe ages (from ref. ⁸⁵) and sites with thermal history models considered in our study (Methods). Spatial distribution of Paraná flood basalts is from ref. ¹¹⁶ and rivers are from Natural Earth (https://www.naturalearthdata.com/). b, Density plot comparing the distribution of AFT ages^18,85 over time in relation to the timing of continental break-up in Eastern Brazil and Southern Africa (dashed vertical lines). c, Profile X–Y (see panel a) showing AFT (n = 226) and AHe (n = 45) ages⁸⁵ from the continental margins towards the interior. An indicative elevation profile is shown, as well as the timing of rifting onset and continental break-up. Dashed lines show the predicted timing of peak mantle disturbance given  convective instability migration rates of 10, 15 and 20 km Myr⁻¹ relative to the nearest COB at break-up (that is, 118 Ma). Time of maximum cooling (d) and estimated total exhumation (e) with distance from the COB using published thermal history models^{26,30,56,57,111} (n = 24). Note that e is based on the total temperature drop for best-fit curves, incorporating uncertainty in distance and geothermal gradient, with the error bars for exhumation signifying the 5th and 95th percentiles (see Methods for details). Note that the total exhumation is generally lower than that inferred for much of Southern Africa (Extended Data Fig. 8c), consistent with the observation that the Paraná flood basalts (shown in a) have been less eroded than their Etendeka counterpart.