. 2024 Jul 29;13(15):2408. doi: 10.3390/foods13152408

Table 1.

Major types of antinutrients.

Antinutrient	Subtypes	Foods	Chemical Nature	Mechanism of Action	Reference
Proteins
Protease inhibitors	Trypsin inhibitors	Legume seeds	Protein	Inhibit trypsin, chymotrypsin, and protein digestion	[11]
Lectins		Beans, peas, carrots, tomato, potatoes, fruits	Protein	Bind carbohydrates specifically	[2,3]
Phenols
Tannins	Condensed (catechin, epicatechin, etc.)	Tea, cocoa, grapes, apples, apricots, berries, nuts	Polyflavans	Bind proteins by hydrogen bonds and hydrophobic interactions, thus decreasing iron and calcium absorption; anti-trypsin and anti-amylase activities	[2]
	Hydrolysable (tannic acid, etc.)	Walnuts, pomegranates	Esters of carbohydrates with gallic/ellagic acid	Decrease the bioavailability of non-heme iron; form a complex with vitamin B	[4]
Phytoestrogens	Isoflavones (genistein, daidzein, glycitein, biochanin A)	Soy and soy products	Hydroxylated and methylated isoflavone derivatives; structurally similar to 17-β-estradiol	Binds to the estrogen receptor, modulates estrogenic activity	[22]
	Lignans	Flaxseeds, sesame seeds	Diverse derivatives of phenylpropanoid dimers (C18)	Estrogen receptor and MAPK pathway	[2]
	Stilbenes (e.g., resveratrol; gigantol)	Grapes, peanuts rhubarb	Hydroxylated derivatives of stilbene (1,2-diphenyl ethene)	Modulate NF-β-B, MAPK and JAK/STAT pathways involved in inflammation	[3]
	Coumestans	Lima beans, alfalfa	Hydroxylated and methylated coumestan derivatives; structurally similar to 17-β-estradiol	Binds to estrogen receptor, modulates estrogenic activity	[2]
Gossypol		Cotton seeds	Terpenoid aldehyde	Binds the β-amino group of lysine, limiting its bioavailability	[1]
Glycosides
Goitrogens		Brassica vegetables, millet, cassava	Glucosinolates, derivatives of glucose and amino acids; sulfur-containing	Inhibit iodine uptake	[21]
Cyanogenic glycosides		Cassava, cocoyam (leaves, roots), bamboo (stem, sprouts), sorghum, apples (grains and fruits), apricots (kernels)	α-hydroxynitrile (cyanohydrin) glycosylated with glucose or gentiobiose (glu-β(1→6)-glu)	Hydrolyzed by β-glucosidase to α-hydroxynitrile, which is spontaneously decomposed to HCN and aldehyde/ketone	[10]
Saponins	Triterpenoid	Legumes	Triterpenoid aglycone plus mono- or oligosaccharide glycone	Bind to intestinal cells and minimize absorption and utilization of nutrients	[13]
	Steroids	Oats, pepper, asparagus, ginseng	Steroid aglycone plus mono- or oligosaccharide glycone		[13]
Anti-minerals
	Oxalates	Spinach, rhubarb, beet greens, amaranth, taro, swiss chard, sweet potatoes	Salts of the oxalic acid (ethanedioic, H₂C₂O₄)	Relatively insoluble salts with Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, Zn²⁺, and Fe²⁺, limiting their bioavailability	[7]
	Phytates	Legumes, cereals, nuts, seeds, pseudocereals	Salts of the phytic acid (myoinositol hexaphosphate)	Insoluble salts with Zn²⁺, Ca²⁺, Mn²⁺, Mg²⁺, and Fe²⁺, limiting their bioavailability	[14]
Anti-enzymes
	Solanine	Potatoes, tomatoes, eggplant	Glycoalkaloid, saponin-like	Cholinesterase inhibitor	[1]
	Amylase inhibitors	Wheat, oats, rye	-	Inhibits absorption of dietary starch	[17]
	Arginase inhibitors	Sunflower seeds	-	Inhibits the last step of the urea cycle and the nitrogen cycle	[17]
	Protease inhibitors	Egg white	Ovostatin, ovomucoid, ovoinhibitor, and cystatin	Inhibit digestive enzymes	[17]
Anti-vitamins	Anti-vitamin K Anti-vitamin B7 Anti-vitamin C Anti-vitamin A, E, D Anti-vitamin B1	Alfalfa, grapefruit Eggs Melon, squash, zucchini, cucumber Soybeans Raw fish	Coumarins Avidin Ascorbic acid oxidase Lipoxidase Thiaminase	Inhibitors or structural modifiers of vitamins that interact with enzymes, interfering with their natural functions; or are vitamin-destroying enzymes	[3]