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. 2024 Jul 25;13(15):4354. doi: 10.3390/jcm13154354

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© 2024 by the authors.

Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

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Summary of the existing evidence on the interplay between CKM syndrome, renal health, and sex hormones. This figure illustrates the multifaceted impact of the sex hormones, estrogen and testosterone, and different hormonal therapies on components of CKM syndrome, encompassing renal function, cardiovascular health, and metabolic regulation, with a greater focus on chronic kidney disease and individual mechanisms within the kidney. It contrasts male and female responses to hormonal changes, generally emphasizing the protective mechanisms in females and increased susceptibility in males. Abbreviations: GFR: glomerular filtration rate; GPER1: G protein-coupled estrogen receptor 1; KIM-1: kidney injury molecule 1; RPT: renal proximal tubule; TNFα: tumor necrosis factor-alpha; IL-1β: interleukin-1 beta; ACE: angiotensin-converting enzyme; AT-1 receptor: angiotensin II receptor type 1; SHR: spontaneously hypertensive rats; TG: triglycerides, TC: total cholesterol, LDL-C: low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, HDL-C: high-density lipoprotein cholesterol; FBG: free blood glucose; GT: glucose tolerance; IR: insulin resistance.