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. 2024 Jan 17;33(9):2035–2045. doi: 10.1007/s10068-023-01495-8

Dietary mung bean as promising food for human health: gut microbiota modulation and insight into factors, regulation, mechanisms and therapeutics—an update

Nirmala Sehrawat 1, Mukesh Yadav 1, Anil Kumar Sharma 2,✉, Varruchi Sharma 3, Deepak Chandran 4, Sandip Chakraborty 5, Abhijit Dey 6, Subhash C Chauhan 7, Kuldeep Dhama 8,✉
PMCID: PMC11315822  PMID: 39130662

Abstract

Plant-based functional foods have gained wider attention in current scenario with mung bean harboring several bioactive compounds with promising gut health benefits and pharmacological importance. Consumption of mung bean has a positive impact on beneficial gut microbes and microbial metabolite production. The effects of dietary mung bean on gut microbial homeostasis and the management of gut-related diseases along with the possible mechanism of action, have been highlighted through this review paving a way for a promising role of dietary mung bean as a functional food in the management of gut-related diseases for example mung bean peptides can help not only in treating prediabetes but also delaying the aging process by targeting the intestinal microflora. In addition, expanding our knowledge of how diets affect host health and disease, including the effects of mung bean dietary components on gut microbiota-derived metabolites, will eventually allow for the development of tailored diets and nutrients.

Keywords: Gut microbiota, Mung bean, Functional Food, Disease management

Introduction

The gut microbiome is currently an emerging target of interest for the treatment of human illnesses. The human gut is an intricate ecosystem with various microbes, metabolites, host cells, and nutrients. These constituents collectively function to maintain homeostasis and provide nutritional support to the host. Each individual harbors nearly 3 × 1013 (trillion) microbes inside the gut, including bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoans, and archaea (Aurigemma et al., 2018; Rajpoot et al., 2018; Xiao et al., 2022). The gut microbiota comprises a population of commensal, symbiotic, and pathogenic microorganisms, inhabiting the gastrointestinal (GI) tract (Valdes et al., 2018). It primarily comprises microbes belonging to six categories: Bacteroidetes, Actinobacteria, Verrucomicrobiota, Firmicutes, Fusobacteria, and Proteobacteria (Charoensiddhi et al., 2022; Claesson et al., 2012). However, variations in commensal microbial communities among individuals have been found and could be attributed to differences in their birth patterns, genetics, lifestyle, food habits, body mass index (BMI), and environmental factors (Morgan and Huttenhower 2012). Earlier studies have found that the gut microbiota affects host physiology, as well as the development of associated disorders and diseases (Charoensiddhi et al., 2022). The intake of microbial and plant-based food products in the diet directly or indirectly promotes the development of a more stable microbial system inside the human gut (Xie et al., 2022b). An increase in beneficial microbes and a decrease in harmful microbes inside the gut help maintain gut homeostasis by re-establishing the gut microbiome (Sehrawat et al., 2021; Sharma et al., 2021; Tomova et al., 2019 Yadav et al., 2022).

Individual dietary patterns, including omnivorous, vegan, or vegetarian diets influence the composition of the gut microbiota. This variation in microbiota composition depends on several factors, including the abundance of different commensal microbes or bacteria consumed directly from food, variations in substrate consumed, differences in transit time through the GI tract, intestinal pH level, dietary pattern, host secretions, as well as gene expression level within the host and the associated gut microbiome (Derrien and Veiga 2017; Salonen and de Vos 2014). Several studies have reported that vegetarian diets have the potential to significantly modulate gut microbiota and the associated host physiology. A vegetarian diet affects the relative abundance of gut microbes not only at the genus or species level but also at the strain level. Regular consumption of plant-based food in the diet helps establish a more diverse and stable gut microbiome that exerts significant health benefits to the host (Sehrawat et al., 2021; Sharma et al., 2021). A vegetarian diet also contributes more functional nutrients that promote the growth and metabolite production of beneficial microbes which are involved in regulating various cellular functions, signaling pathways, and mechanisms. In addition, microbial metabolites and functional nutrients strengthen the intestinal immune response, improve gut barrier function, and provide protection against pathogenic attacks or harmful microorganisms. These regulations are responsible for the health status of individuals (Xiao et al., 2022).

Role of gut microbiota

The composition of the gut microbiota is highly dynamic, wherein existing microbes perform their functions in mutualism and maintain equilibrium in the GI tract (Claus et al., 2017; Zhang et al., 2015). Gut microbiota plays a significant role inside the host, such as (i) regulating metabolism, (ii) strengthening host immunity, (iii) ensuring availability of nutrients and functional metabolites, (iv) controlling contaminant levels and toxicity, (v) regulating neurodevelopment, cognition, and associated functions (emotions, temper, communication, and interpersonal interactions), (vi) maintaining integration of the immune and nervous systems, (vii) synthesizing essential vitamins (biotin, folic acid, K, B12, pantothenic acid), (viii) angiogenesis, (ix) fermentation of prebiotic substrates and non-digestible food components (fibers or carbohydrates), (x) preventing colonization of pathogens, and (xi) regulating host physiology(Claus et al., 2017; Pickard et al., 2017; Sarkar et al., 2018). However, the loss of mutualism among gut microbes and their metabolic activities cause gut dysbiosis and the onset of several human illnesses (Rajpoot et al., 2021). Dysbiosis is the loss of gut microbial diversity, characterized by an increase in pathogenic microbes, and a decline in beneficial microbes (Cani 2018; Carding et al., 2015).

Gut dysbiosis and its regulation

Gut microbiota is directly associated with the health status of an individual (Xiao et al., 2022). However, any alteration in the commensal microbial population in the gastrointestinal tract or gut microbiome is linked to the onset of several human illnesses related to metabolism. Irregular gut metabolism directly or indirectly affects other organs or systems of the host due to the intricate connection between the gut and organs including lungs, liver, and brain via the gut-lung axis, gut-liver axis, and gut-brain axis, respectively (Sharma et al., 2020). It has been suggested that dysbiosis in the gut microbiota can increase host susceptibility, leading to a wide range of infectious and noncommunicable disorders. Through the delivery of a wide variety of nutrients and the regulation of energy balance and immune responses, the gut ecosystem plays a crucial role in maintaining host health (Vamanu et al., 2022). In addition, polyphenols can enhance gut microbiota balance and have positive impacts on host health by lowering the risk of pathogen invasion and diseases like obesity, type 2 diabetes, inflammatory bowel disease, cancer, and cardiovascular, liver, and central nervous system illnesses (Charoensiddhi et al., 2022). Patients with metabolic syndrome may benefit from consuming red wine due to its polyphenol content, which has been shown to increase the proportion of beneficial bacteria in the gut, including Bifidobacterium, Lactobacillus, and butyrate-producing bacteria like Faecalibacterium prausnitzii and Roseburia, which are excreted in the feces. The destiny of dietary polyphenols and their connection to intestine microbial ecology, biological activity, and human health and disease were discussed by Ray and Mukherjee (2021).

Dysbiosis of gut microbiota results in a dysfunction of the interconnected gut axis, which finally leads to the occurrence of several chronic diseases or disorders of the metabolism, as well as the immune, nervous, cardiac, and respiratory systems (Loo et al., 2020; Sehrawat et al., 2021). Earlier studies have suggested that changes in dietary habits, particularly the long-term intake of plant-based diets, play a significant role in maintaining healthy gut microbiota. These dietary alterations help in ameliorating the prevalence of chronic disease in humans (Selber-Hnatiw et al., 2017; Sonnenburg and Bäckhed 2016; Xiao et al., 2022). Dietary habits play a significant role in initiating, shaping, and modulating the gut microbiota. Short-term intake of either plant- or animal-based diets exerts rapid and reproducible modulatory effects on the host gut microbiome, whereas long-term dietary changes (plentiful animal fat and proteins) cause an abundance of specific microbes in the gut. Different food components have diverse potentials in modulating the composition and metabolism of intestinal commensal microbes. Plant-derived chemical compounds (phytochemicals) have great potential in modifying gut microbial populations (Yang et al., 2020). The fermentation of dietary fibers by beneficial gut microbes produces useful metabolites that affect gut health, host physiology, metabolism, and functional outcomes to a greater extent. These metabolites help to maintain an intestinal environment more favorable for the survival and growth of beneficial bacteria and provide promising health benefits to the host. Recent studies have discussed the effects of dietary intake of plant-based products on the human gut microbiota. These studies also focused on the synergistic effects of bacterial metabolites on the regulation of the gut microbiota (Loo et al., 2020).

Mung bean and modulation of gut microbiota

Mung bean is an important pulse crop consumed worldwide, particularly in Asia. It is a rich source of easily digested proteins, fibers, and essential bioactive compounds, with significant health benefits and pharmacological importance (Hou et al., 2021; Sehrawat et al., 2020; Sehrawat et al., 2021). Since historic periods, the mung bean has been used as a traditional medicine for the treatment of several diseases. Germination further enhances the content and nutritional value of these functional components, ultimately improving human absorption (Ketha and Gudipati 2018). Mung bean has significant potential in modulating gut microbiota composition, which further affects host physiological functions and regulates metabolism at the biochemical, molecular, and histological levels. Balanced microbiota inside the gut and regulation of metabolism prevents the development of metabolic disorders and associated chronic diseases (Figs. 1, 2). Processed mung bean has been identified as a promising functional food that can be included in the diet to provide health benefits (Hou et al., 2021). Earlier in vitro and in vivo studies have reported the health-promoting effects of mung bean in the prevention of chronic diseases and other conditions. Hou et al. (2020) investigated the significant impacts of mung bean as a whole or in the decorticated form to modulate gut microbiota and regulate lipid disorders and serum glucose levels in pre-diabetic mice following stimulation with streptozotocin (STZ) and a high-fat diet (HFD) (Hou et al., 2020). The authors found improved glucose tolerance in mice treated with mung bean. These findings indicate the effective role of mung bean in improving hepatic steatosis and β-cell damage of the pancreas, as well as in reducing the levels of serum insulin, fasting blood glucose, serum protein, and the lipid profile. In addition, the authors also suggested that mung bean supplementation promotes the growth of beneficial microbes (Akkermansia and Bifidobacterium) and reduces the pathogenic microbes (Enterococcus and Staphylococcus) and thus helps to prevent or treat gut dysbiosis (Hou et al., 2020). Recently, role of mungbean as a functional food with therapeutic potential against cancer has been reviewed by Sehrawat et al. (2023).

Fig. 1.

Fig. 1

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An overview on promising mechanisms of actions involved for mung bean to regulate gut microbiota. IL interleukins, TNF tumor necrosis factors, ROS reactive oxygen species, SCFAs short chain fatty acids

Fig. 2.

Fig. 2

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Role of mung bean in disease management attributed to gut microbiota homeostasis

Dietary habits also affect the association between the host gut microbiota and neurodevelopment by affecting the regulation of cognitive functions by the gut-brain axis (Wei et al., 2021). Lack of nutrition and irregular diet patterns during the early growth stages of an individual later resulted in improper development of the nervous system and related functions. Wei et al. (2021) explored the potential of mung bean supplementation (7% mung bean protein) on gut microbiota alteration and neurodevelopment in Sprague–Dawley (SD) rats. They found significant alterations in useful microbes (Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium longum subsp. Alloprevotella) and serum metabolite production from mung bean. In addition, the restoration of essential amino acids (tyrosine, glycine, and tryptophan) and improved choline system regulating brain functions enhanced the expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factors (BDNF) and specific proteins (PSD95; post-synaptic density 95 protein and SNAP25; synaptosome associated protein 25), and decreased expression of nuclear factors (NF-kB) and toll-like receptors (TLR4) following mung bean supplementation (Wei et al., 2021). In another study, mung bean protein isolate (MPI) was found to affect the bile acid pool in the intestine, metabolic phenotype, and commensal microbiota of the gut in CONV-R (conventionally raised C57BL/6) and GF (germ-free) obese mice (Nakatani et al., 2018). These studies found significant alterations in the composition of gut microbiota due to an increase in Bacteroidetes and a decrease in Firmicutes following intake of mung bean as a protein supplement diet. These alterations improved the secretion of glucagon-like peptides and the bile acid pool in the intestine. The mung bean proteins were also found to significantly reduce obesity-related symptoms or changes as well as balance of the gut microbiota (Nakatani et al., 2018).

The fermentation with mung bean seed coat extract (MSE) led to a greater number of butyrate producers in the gut microbiome compared to the controls. Existing studies have shown that butyric acid is beneficial for colon health, leading to fewer cases of colon cancer and inflammatory bowel disease (Van Immerseel et al., 2010). Furthermore, in MSE-supplemented circumstances, the number of Bacteroides was larger, whereas in gallic acid, vitexin, and fructose ologosaccharide-supplemented fermentation, this was not the case. This may be because the MSE contains particular polysaccharides that are useful to these bacteria. Large quantities of carbohydrate-active enzymes, which can liquefy plant cell walls, are found in Bacteroides (Esgalhado et al., 2017; Zhang et al., 2023).

Intracellular signaling is altered, such as insulin signaling and inflammatory state, when there is an imbalance in the creation and clearance of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Oxidative stress, insulin resistance, and inflammation can often be prevented or treated with bioactive substances that can decrease intracellular ROS levels (Ladurner et al., 2014). MSE was found to have antioxidant effects in db/db mice, leading to elevated levels of superoxide dismutase, catalase, and glutathione peroxidase (Jang et al., 2014). According to the research published recently, insulin-resistant HepG2 cells had their glucose absorption improved by mung bean water extract (Sigwela et al., 2021). Both db/db mice and KK-Ay mice had lower fasting blood glucose levels after being treated with ethanolic MSE. Agrimonolide, desmethylagrimonolide, quercetin, luteolin, luteolin-7-O-glucoside, kaempferol, and apigenin were also reported to have a glucose-lowering effect. The anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidant effects of flavonoids were shown to be linked together in a study published by Chanput et al. (2016). Reduced intracellular reactive oxygen species and oxidative stress may account for the MSE-induced improvements in glucose absorption and reduced proinflammatory gene expression.

Supplementation of the diet with mungbean peptides (MBPs) is attributed to have a variety of benefits for health. There is a significant reversion of the imbalance of gut microbiota induced by high fat diet (HFD) in mice by the inclusion of MBPs (mungbean peptides) in the diet. Moreover, the diversity of gut microbiota is also increased by MBPs. A crucial role is played by the gut microbiota in order to maintain homeostasis and to alleviate metabolic disorders. There is a positive correlation between the gut microbiota and the ability of the host to offer resistance to immune as well as chronic diseases. There is association between the reduced abundance of the microbiota in gut and reduced efficiency to improve the inflammatory response. Several studies have shown that a high fat diet can cause reduction in the diversity and richness of the microbial populations and changes in the structure of microbial communities are also noted. In one such study by Li et al. (2022), it has been found that there is significant reduction of the diversity as well as richness of microbial community and the phenomenon is reversed by the dietary intervention with MBPs. Again, the structure of the intestinal flora shows significant change after dietary intervention with MBPs. It has been shown that there is effective restoration of the Chao1 and Shannon indices by supplementing the diet with mung bean which thereby can effectively cause prevention of the reduction in the richness of the microbial community of the intestine caused by high fat diet (Nugues and Roberts 2003). The Chao1 index is used to measure species richness and the Shannon index is used to estimate species diversity.

The process of development of obesity, insulin resistance as well as inflammation can be affected by the changes in the composition of microbes in the intestine. For managing the prediabetes induced by high fat diet, MBPs play a crucial role by altering the composition of microbiota in gut (Zhao et al., 2022). The abundance of nineteen microorganisms in the intestine at the level of genus showed significant correlation with body weights, level of hormones and biochemical indices of liver. It has been found that there can be enhancement in the abundance of beneficial bacteria potentially related to prediabetes by MBPs. Such bacteria include Lactobacillus and Lachnospiraceae_NK4A136_group. Side by side, MBPs also cause reduction in the abundance of bacteria that are potentially harmful in association with prediabetic condition viz., Ruminiclostridium_9 and Intestinimonas. Lachnospiraceae_NK4A136_group of bacteria has been reported to be quite beneficial in preventing obesity. All these data are suggestive of the fact that the microbial target of MBPs is the intestinal microflora and this is one of the reasons for treating prediabetes by supplementing the diet with MBPs (Li et al., 2022; Wang et al., 2021).

It has been found that the abundance of Firmicutes is increased along with reduction in the abundance of Bacteroidetes and increase in the ratio of Firmicutes; Bacteroidetes by high fat diet. Interestingly, following the dietary intervention with MBPs a downward trend is noticed in the abundance of Firmicutes and Bacteroidetes. However, no significant difference has been noticed. Because of this, the ratio of Firmicutes; Bacteroidetes instead of decreasing rather increased following dietary intervention with MBPs (Li et al., 2022; Shen et al., 2021). Zhang et al. (2022) investigated the impact of MPI as well as MPI-polyphenol complex on the microflora of intestine in an aging model of mouse (D-galactose induced) (Zhang et al., 2022). Improvement in the diversity as well as abundance of flora of the intestine has been noticed due to intervention by MPI and MPI-polyphenol complex. Further, the Firmicutes to Bacteroidetes ratio has also been found to be decreased due to such intervention. In the intestinal tract of aging mouse, proliferation of Bacteroidetes, Roseburia and Bifidobacterium has been facilitated by the addition of MPI and the MPI-phenol complex. There is upregulation of five pathways in relation to metabolism of energy and lipid significantly by MPI. Negative correlation between Roseburia and Muribaculaceae with levels of malondialdehyde and positive correlation between Roseburia and Muribaculaceae with indices of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and other enzymes having antioxidant properties have been found. This study has come up with a finding that the aging in mice can be delayed by MPI as well as MPI-phenol complexes by regulation of flora of intestine and by reduction of oxidative damage.

Mung bean polyphenols have also been shown to affect colonic and gastrointestinal health (Xie et al., 2022b). The authors found 49 polyphenols and metabolite products from mung bean during in vitro simulated digestion and colonic fermentation. The findings demonstrated an increased abundance of useful microbes such as Bacteroides and Lactococcus in the gut due to the fermentation process inside the colon. Mung bean dietary fibers also play a significant role in the regulation of gut microbiota composition and metabolism, resulting in improved levels of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs). The authors also suggested that colonic fermentation enhanced the release of polyphenols from mung bean as compared to the digestion process alone. Higher concentrations of polyphenols result in higher antioxidant potential and improved gut health (Xie et al., 2022b). Dietary fibers and phytochemicals present in mung bean have a great potential to improve high-fat diet-induced metabolic disorders and hepatic steatosis by targeting commensal microbes present in gut and metabolite production as recorded by previous investigations (Hou et al., 2022). The seed coat of mung bean appears to be highly effective in alleviating or reducing lipid accumulation, hepatic oxidative stress, metabolism-related conditions, and inflammation (Hou et al., 2021, 2022; Xie et al., 2022b). Recently, Shen et al. (2022) investigated polyphenols in germinated mung bean to reduce type 2 diabetes mellitus (DM) in diabetic mice categorized into various groups in a time- and dose-dependent manner (mg/kg) (Shen et al., 2022). They found an increase in gut microbial diversity and an improvement in dysbiosis in this study. In addition, mung bean intake caused a reduction in inflammation, repair of liver tissue damage, regulation of lipid metabolism and glucose disorders, and a significant decrease in blood glucose and lipid levels in the investigated mice groups(Shen et al., 2022). Some significant findings showing the impact of mung bean intake on the alteration of the gut microbiota and improvement of associated diseases are summarized in Table 1. These findings revealed significant interactions between functional food components and host gut microbiota. However, the mechanisms involved in disease prevention are still unclear and require further research (Hou et al., 2019; Laparra and Sanz 2010). Presently, the promising impact of mung bean as a functional food on gut microbiota and the exploration of the mechanisms involved in disease prevention offers a possible newer therapeutic option (Hou et al., 2021).

Table 1.

Studies on dietary intake of mung bean, modulation of gut microbiota and disease management

Mung bean constituents Effect on microbes Investigated microbes Examples Investigated health effects References
Fibers  +  Lactic acid bacteria Roseburia, Ruminococcus, and E. rectale

Promoted gut health

• Reduce inflammation

• Inhibits growth and survival of harmful microbes

Enhanced metabolite production: SCFAs (Propionate, acetate & butyrate)

 Tomova et al. (2019)
– Pathogenic Clostridium and Enterococcus species
 +  Fermentation of food
Polyphenols  +  Bifidobacterium & Lactobacillus
Mung bean polyphenols & fibers (Colonic fermentation)  +  Bacteroides & Lactococcus

• Improved useful gut microbes

• Promoted gut and colonic health

• Improved metabolism & SCFAs production

 Xie et al. (2022b)
Mung bean as supplement (Whole & Decorticated form; 30%) C57BL/6 J mice: Pre-diabetic mice treated with STZ & HFD

• Alteration of gut microbiota composition

• Regulation of serum glucose level & lipid disorders

• Improved glucose tolerance & sensitization of insulin action

• Prevention of gut dysbiosis

 Hou et al. (2020)
 +  Beneficial microbes Bifidobacterium and Akkermansia
– Harmful microbes Staphylococcus and Enterococcus
Mung bean protein diet as supplement (7%)  +  Sprague–Dawley (SD) rats Lactobacillus & Bifidobacterium longum subsp. Alloprevotella

• Affected gut microbiota by altering useful microbes

• Improved neurodevelopment & associated functions

• Improved cognition

• Up and down-regulation of specific proteins, factors and receptors regulating brain functions

 Wei et al. (2021)
Mung bean protein isolate (MPI) as supplemented protein  +  Mice; CONV-R (conventionally raised) male mice (C57BL/6) & GF (germ free) mice Bacteroidetes

• Altered gut microbiota

• Reduced HFD-induced weight gain & accumulation adipose tissue

• Attenuation of hepatic steatosis

• Reduced obesity related problems

 Nakatani et al. (2018)
– Firmicutes
Mung bean seed coat ethanolic extract  +  Useful micro-organisms Enterococcus, Ruminococcus, Blautia, and Bacteroides

• Significant gut health benefits

• Regulation of gut dysbiosis

 Charoensiddhi et al. (2022)
– Pathogens Escherichia-Shigella

Cell lines used:

LPS-stimulated THP-1 monocytes

Insulin-resistant HepG2 cells

• Anti-inflammatory effects (Reduction of TNF, IL-1

• IL-6, and IL-8 genes)

• Anti-oxidant effects
Germinated mung bean sprouts (50, 100 and 150 mg/kg) Diabetic mice (C57BL/6)

Decrease in abundance of Firmicutes and Proteobacteria

Increase in Bacteroidetes proliferation

• Increase in gut microbial diversity

• Improved dysbiosis

• Reduction of inflammation

• Regulation of lipid metabolism & glucose disorders

• Repair of liver damage

 (Shen et al., 2022)
Mung bean skin water-soluble polysachharides Balb/c mice Increase in firmicutes, bacteroidetes and clostridium proliferation

• Short chain fatty acids (SCFAs) synthesis and colon length were both enhanced in Balb/c mice

• Increased production of SCFAs, which improved the intestinal ecosystem

• Increased the proliferation of probiotic bacteria and altered the composition of the gut microbiota in Balb/c mice

• a dose-dependent rise in Chao1 and ACE indices

 (Xie et al., 2022a)
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STZ streptozotocin, HFD high fat diet, SCFAs short chain fatty acids, IL interlukins, TNF tumor necrosis factor

Mung bean a potent functional food: gut microbiota, mechanistic insight and beneficial aspects

Dysbiosis or unfavorable changes in gut microbiota leads to the development of systemic, gastrointestinal, and neurodegenerative diseases or metabolic disorders, and plant-based diets have shown great potential in re-establishing gut homeostasis and in improving dysbiosis to control the development of chronic diseases, as reported in previous studies (Shen et al., 2022; Wei et al., 2021). Mung bean contains large amounts of protein, fibers, vitamins, carbohydrates, and potent bioactive compounds resulting in easy digestion and low flatulence production (Sehrawat et al., 2021). Earlier findings suggested that regular consumption of mung bean in the diet exerts significant health effects on the host by affecting the gut microbiota, which may be a potential therapeutic target to treat human diseases or disorders (Figs. 1, 2) (Hou et al., 2022; Xie et al., 2022b). The different mung bean extracts used to modulate gut microbiota and the management of disorders or diseases are presented in Table 1. Functional food-mediated modulation of the gut microbiome is an emerging and challenging area of research in the present era. The presence of bioactive compounds in this valuable crop makes it a promising functional food for the modulation of commensal microbes in the human gastrointestinal tract. Moreover, the easy digestibility of mung bean accelerates its absorption, assimilation in the colon, and bioavailability as a suitable prebiotic substrate for specific microbes in the gut. Fermentation of mung bean by beneficial gut microbes enhances the production of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) and other microbial metabolites that regulate cellular functions and signaling mechanisms (Xie et al., 2022b). An increase in SCFA levels and production of functional metabolites favors the growth and survival of beneficial microbes and inhibits colonization by harmful microbes or pathogen attacks. This is due to a decrease in the pH of the intestinal region, improved immune response, strengthening of the mucous membrane and gut barrier functions, and reduction of inflammation (Fig. 1).

Previous studies have demonstrated that mung bean phytochemicals have a great potential to modulate gut microbial populations, but the mechanisms involved in the regulation of gut dysbiosis are still unexplored (Hou et al., 2022; Shen et al., 2022; Wei et al., 2021). Further research is needed to investigate the appropriate mechanisms involved in mung bean-mediated gut homeostasis and the cure of human illnesses. As per earlier literature available, consumption of mung bean (germinated, fermented, corticated, or decorticated) improves the gut microbial diversity and gut dysbiosis by the following proposed mechanisms: (i) ease of digestion, (ii) fast absorption and assimilation rate, (iii) improved bioavailability of functional nutrients, (iv) suitable prebiotic substrate for selected useful microbes in the gut, (v) improved microbial metabolite production (SCFAs), (vi) regulation of intestinal pH, (vii) increase in abundance of beneficial gut microbes, (viii) decrease in harmful microbes and intestinal inflammation, (ix) improved stability of the intestinal mucous membrane, (x) strengthening of gut barrier function, and (xi) promoting healthy immune responses (Table 1, Fig. 1). These mechanisms indicate that mung bean helps maintain a favorable intestinal environment for beneficial microbes, and a diet with high fiber content affects the amount and type of gut microbiota. These undigested dietary fibers can be digested and fermented by microbial enzymes in the intestinal region, resulting in the production of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs). These compounds are involved in reducing intestinal pH and inhibiting the growth of pathogenic microbes (https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/microbiome/). SCFAs compounds are also known to stimulate immune cell activity, regulate blood lipid and glucose levels, and maintain normal cell signaling. All these activities ultimately prevent the occurrence or development of chronic diseases or health disorders associated with the human gut metabolism and interacting axes such as the gut-brain axis, gut-skin axis, gut-lung axis, and gut-liver axis (Fig. 2) (Sehrawat et al., 2021; Sharma et al., 2021; Shen et al., 2022).

Considering the facts, one can convincingly say that the metabolites produced by the gut microbiota have critical functions in host homeostasis and disease pathogenesis. Dietary chemicals that make it through the small intestine can influence the metabolites produced by the gut microbiota in the colon through interactions with these microbes. These metabolites can be classified into three broad categories: (I) those synthesized by gut microbiota directly from dietary compounds; (II) those synthesized by hosts and chemically transformed by gut microbiota; and (III) those synthesized by gut microbiota de novo. Short chain fatty acids, bile acids, trimethylamine, branched-chain amino acids, and tryptophan metabolites are among those altered by the gut microbiota, but this list is not exhaustive. Personalized diets can be used for precise regulation of gut microbiota metabolites because some dietary substances are converted to a specific group of metabolites under the action of particular bacteria. Furthermore, a diet can affect many different types of gut bacteria and metabolites; therefore, it is important to pinpoint the exact bacteria and metabolites that contribute to the positive results of dietary changes.

Mung bean is an important pulse crop with significant health benefits. Its functional nutrients have a huge potential to affect the diversity and stability of the gut microbiota. In the present era of therapeutics, modulation of the gut microbiota is an emerging area of research as an alternative, efficient, and more promising option for the treatment of human illnesses. Regular dietary intake of mung bean has a huge potential to modulate the host gut microbiota, re-establish gut homeostasis, and improve gut dysbiosis. However, a poor understanding of the mechanisms involved in mung bean-mediated modulation of gut microbes requires further research and clinical trials. The dominance of good gut microbiota directly reflects the health status of an individual. Considering the early health benefits and pharmacological significance of mung bean, it can be used as a functional food to exert a positive impact on gut microbes. This will be highly useful for treating, reducing, and managing diseases or disorders associated with the gut microbiota. Taken together, the positive results that are obtained from several in vitro studies highlight the necessities to conduct animal as well as clinical studies in relation to mung bean in near future to strengthen the reason for its use as a functional food.

Acknowledgements

Authors (MY, NS and AKS) acknowledge the help and support by Head, Department of Bio-Sciences and Technology, MMEC, Maharishi Markandeshwar (Deemed to be University), Mullana-Ambala, India. KD, SCC, DC, SC and AD acknowledge their respective Institutes as well.

Author contributions

MY, NS did most of the writing part and making figures. VS made the table and helped in designing figures as well. KD, DC, AD, SC, SCC were involved in planning, updating, fine tuning, critical editing and reviewing; AKS was involved in conceptualization, analysis, supervision along with concluding the manuscript. All the authors reviewed the manuscript critically.

Funding

No funding was received for the said manuscript.

Declarations

Conflict of Interest

Authors declare no conflict of interest.

Ethical approval

Not applicable.

Footnotes

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Contributor Information

Anil Kumar Sharma, Email: anibiotech18@gmail.com.

Kuldeep Dhama, Email: kdhama@rediffmail.com.

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