Table 3.

Health care costs and out-of-pocket payments for PRIME cohort participants at baseline, mid-line and end-line assessments (in US dollars for the year 2015)

	Ethiopia			India			Nepal			South Africa			Uganda
	n	Mean	SD	n	Mean	SD	n	Mean	SD	n	Mean	SD	n	Mean	SD
Total service cost in last 3 months
Baseline	540	5.72	21.08	502	3.00	9.06	433	10.17	29.95	245	23.01	41.22	295	6.70	10.86
Mid-line	367	1.95	6.53	465	3.32	12.26	367	7.24	16.22	194	47.12	66.28	282	5.53	7.33
End-line	446	1.65	6.95	433	5.18	19.44	370	11.19	35.41	183	17.36	30.53	259	3.59	5.21
Test of difference (coefficient, 95% CI)
Mid-line vs baseline	−4.08 (−5.62 to −2.55)***			0.32 (−0.67 to 1.31)			−3.16 (−5.73 to −0.60)**			26.25 (16.26–36.23)***			−1.15 (−2.32 to 0.03)m
End-line–baseline	−3.72 (−5.09 to −2.34)***			2.14 (0.27–4.01)*			0.75 (−3.34 to 4.85)			−3.56 (−9.33 to 2.21)			− 3.03 (−4.11 to −1.95)***
Change in total service cost (end-line–baseline)
Functioning worsensa	182	−4.20	25.14	209	2.72	21.77	114	6.43	50.30	66	−0.46	53.49	94	−1.28	8.02
Functioning improvesb	259	−2.64	15.12	203	2.04	21.34	256	−2.24	41.95	117	−4.87	36.52	164	−3.86	13.45
Test of association (β, 95% CI)	−0.59 (−2.19 to 1.02)			0.01 (−3.90 to 3.92)			−9.29 (−18.15 to −0.43)*			−8.84 (−18.97 to 1.28)m			−0.49 (−1.88 to 0.90)
Total private, out-of-pocket cost in last 3 months
Baseline	540	15.78	61.66	502	2.26	6.96	433	10.43	30.59	245	6.68	13.12	295	5.63	10.17
Mid-line	367	4.05	10.14	465	2.64	12.14	367	7.75	17.19	194	5.57	11.81	282	4.87	7.29
End-line	446	3.26	6.96	433	4.73	19.25	370	11.65	36.81	183	4.96	9.17	259	3.95	6.09
Test of difference (coefficient, 95% CI)
Mid-line–baseline	−12.95 (−17.75 to −8.16)***			0.39 (−0.57 to 1.36)			−2.96 (−5.58 to −0.35)*			−0.24 (−2.12 to 1.65)			−0.79 (−1.93 to 0.35)
End-line–baseline	−12.40 (−16.45 to −8.34)***			2.42 (0.52–4.32)*			0.93 (−3.30 to 5.16)			−1.02 (−2.83 to 0.78)			− 1.69 (−2.87 to −0.50)**
Change in out-of-pocket cost (end-line–baseline)
Functioning worsensa	182	−15.65	86.01	209	2.86	21.70	114	7.03	49.82	66	0.52	15.56	94	−0.34	7.85
Functioning improvesb	259	−9.94	43.51	203	2.13	19.26	256	−2.24	43.67	117	−1.85	15.07	164	−2.45	13.30
Test of association (β, 95% CI)	−1.07 (−2.57 to 0.43)			−0.21 (−4.10 to 3.69)			−9.50 (−18.18 to −0.81)*			−2.96 (−6.08 to 0.17)m			−0.09 (−1.58 to 1.41)

^aDefined as a follow-up WHO-DAS score equal to or greater than a WHO-DAS score at baseline.

^bDefined as a follow-up WHO-DAS score smaller than a baseline WHO-DAS score.

^* P < 0.05;

^** P < 0.01

^*** P < 0.001;

^m, marginal.

SD, standard deviation.