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. 2024 Jul 24;632(8025):557–563. doi: 10.1038/s41586-024-07714-4

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© The Author(s) 2024

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 1 — Solid lines and arrows represent processes included in this study using a combination of terrestrial biosphere and atmospheric chemistry modelling. The direct radiative forcing estimates represent the climatic effects of anthropogenic Nr. The uncertainty range of each pathway is estimated on the basis of the 1 standard deviation across the NMIP2 ensemble members as well as the uncertainties in atmospheric chemistry (Supplementary Information Section 1.2). Orange and dark blue solid arrows on the top indicate the warming or cooling effects, respectively. The image of the tree was created using BioRender.com.