Fig. 2.

PDT induces cytotoxicity in target cancer cells through mechanisms involving apoptosis, autophagy, and the modulation of signaling pathways. Apoptosis is driven by caspase activation, mitochondrial dysfunction, and ER stress, which collectively initiate programmed cell death. Additionally, PDT can trigger autophagy, a process where cells degrade and recycle their components, which may lead to cell death if the damage is extensive. Key signaling pathways such as NF-κB/JNK and PI3K/Akt are also influenced by PDT, where their modulation can enhance the apoptotic response. This combination of mechanisms ensures that PDT effectively targets and destroys cancer cells while minimizing damage to surrounding healthy tissue