Table 2. Neurocognitive characterisation, cognitive domains, neuropsychological assessments and cut-offs for cognitive dysfunction (CD) classification in SLE cohorts.

First author, year	Neurocognitive characterisation (clinical NPSLE diagnosis and CD status)	(Cognitive domains)neuropsychological assessments (scoring)	CD classification cut-offs
Appenzeller, 2006	Baseline: 64/107 NPSLE, 30/64—active CNS disease,CD in 35/107 SLE (5 mild, 10 moderate, 20 severe CD)Follow-up: 40/60—active CNS disease,CD in 40/60 SLE (6 mild, 12 moderate, 22 severe CD)	(Attention, executive skills, memory, visual-spatial processing, language, reasoning, psychomotor speed)CVLT, MMSE, WAIS-4 (z-scores)	CD: z-score ≤ −2SD in any domain (CD: mild<3, moderate 3–4, severe>5 domains)
Appenzeller, 2007	Baseline: 36/75 NPSLE, 15/36—active CNS diseaseFollow-up: NR	(Attention, executive skills, memory, visual-spatial processing, language, reasoning, psychomotor speed)CVLT, MMSE, WAIS-4 (z-scores)	CD: z-score ≤ −2SD in any domain (CD: mild<3, moderate 3–4, severe>5 domains)
Jung, 2012	16/31 NPSLE NPSLE vs Non-NPSLE: ↓ psychomotor speed	(Overall cognitive function, attention, executive skills, psychomotor speed, memory)COWAT, DS, HVLT, RCFT, TMT, WAIS-3, WRAT-3 (individual and total z-scores)	No CD cut-off
Gitelman, 2013	cSLE w/ CD: 6/8 NPSLE cSLE w/o CD: 1/14 NPSLE cSLE w/ CD vs cSLE w/o CD and HC: ↓ memory, psychomotor speed, visual-spatial processing and overall cognitive function	(General cognition, attention, executive skills, psychomotor speed, memory, visual-spatial processing)DKEFST, CPT-II, WASI, WISC-4, WRAML-2, Woodcock-Johnson III Tests of Achievement	CD: z-scores ≤ −1 SD in at least two domains or z-scores ≤ −2SD in at least one domain
Cesar, 2015	NPSLE: 6/23—migraine, mood disorder and CD; 5/23—migraine and CD; 2/23—mood disorder & CD NPSLE vs HC: ↓ memory NPSLE vs MS: no differences in cognitive function	(Attention, executive skills, psychomotor speed, memory)BVMT-R, CVLT, DKEFST, PASAT, SDMT (raw scores)	No CD cut-off
Bizzo, 2016	SLE w/o EM deficits: 14/34 NPSLE SLE w/ EM deficits: 10/17 NPSLE	(Memory—learning/recall)RAVLT (individual and mean z-scores)	CD: Mean z-scores≤−1.5 SD, or 2 or more individual z-scores≤−1.5 SD
Bódi, 2017	SLE: No NPSLE diagnoses SLE vs HC: SLE patients showed a mild but significant CD on ACE scale	(Overall cognitive function)MMSE, ACE (raw scores)	No CD cut-off
Zimmerman, 2017	SLE w/o CD: 11/20 NPSLE SLE w/ CD: 11/20 NPSLE, CD (15 mild, 4 moderate, 1 severe), ↑ CD in reasoning (57%), visual-spatial processing (38%), psychomotor speed (33%), executive skills (25%), language (24%)	(Attention, executive skills, language, reasoning, memory, visual-spatial processing)BCT, BBNAB, HT, RAVLT, SCWT, TMT, verbal fluency tasks, WAIS-3, WCST (z-scores)	CD: z-scores ≤ −2SD in any domain
Wiseman, 2017	SLE: 4/51 NPSLE, overall CD (MoCA—19/50, ACER—13/50, MMSE—5/50 SLE) SLE vs HC: ↓ premorbid intelligence (NART)	(Overall cognitive function)MoCA, ACER, MMSE, NART (raw scores)	No CD cut-off
Cannerfelt, 2018	SLE: 43/70 NPSLE (38/43—migraine, 26/43—CD, 25/43—depression, 19/43—anxiety, 18/43—neuropathy)	(Memory, executive skills, psychomotor speed, attention, reasoning)CNS-VS	No CD cut-off for group classification
Corrêa, 2018	SLE: NPSLE diagnosis—NR, no group differences in any domain except memory	(Overall cognitive function, attention, executive skills, psychomotor speed, memory, visual-spatial processing)MMSE, RAVLT, BBNAB, WAIS-3, TMT, HT, SCWT (z-scores)	CD: RAVLT (mem)—total z-scores≤−1.5 SD, or z-scores≤−1.5 SD in≥2 RAVLT domains
Nystedt, 2018	SLE: 39/54 NPSLE NPSLE vs non-NPSLE: ↓ psychomotor speed, attention, cognitive flexibility (executive skills) NPSLE vs HC: ↓ all cognitive domains	(memory, executive skills, psychomotor speed, attention, reasoning)CNS-VS	No CD cut-off
Wiseman, 2018	SLE: 3/47 active NPSLE, NART correlated w/ ↑ g (overall cognitive function)	(Overall cognitive function)MoCA, ACER, MMSE, NART (raw scores)	No CD cut-off
MacKay, 2019	SLE-2 (Baseline): No NPSLE diagnoses, match-to-sample, matching grids, CPT scores ≤ −2SD in 3/20 (15%), 8/20 (40%), 1/20 (5%), respectively SLE-2 (follow-up): ↑ Match-to-Sample & Matching Grids scores (still remained ≤ −2SD for same patients) SLE-2 vs HC: ↓ scores on all ANAM tests	(Attention, memory, visual-spatial processing)Matching Grids, Match-to-Sample, CPT (ANAM battery throughput scores—combined RT & accuracy)	No CD cut-off
DiFrancesco, 2020	cSLE: No NPSLE or CD diagnoses	(Attention, psychomotor speed, memory, visual-spatial processing)CPT-II, KABC, SEBC, WASI, WISC-4 (z-scores)	CD: z-scores ≤ −2SD in one domain, or z-scores ≤ −1SD in two domains
Mårtensson, 2021	SLE: 41/69 NPSLE	(memory, executive skills, psychomotor speed, attention, reasoning)CNS-VS	No CD cut-off
Qian, 2022	SLE: NPSLE diagnosis—NR SLE vs HC: ↓ mean IQ, ↓ CPT	(Attention, memory, visual-spatial processing)WAIS-4, ANAM battery (throughput scores)	No CD cut-off
Julio, 2023	cSLE: 53/71 NPSLE, 31/71 CD aSLE: 36/49 NPSLE, 16/49 CD	(Overall cognitive function)MoCA	No CD cut-off

ACEAddenbrooke’s Cognitive ExaminationACERACE-RevisedANAMAutomated Neuropsychological Assessment MetricBBNABBrazilian Brief Neuropsychological Assessment Battery NEUPSILINBCTBells Cancellation TestBVMTBrief Visuospatial Memory Test–RevisedCARRAChildhood Arthritis & Rheumatology Research AllianceCNS-VSCentral Nervous System Vital-SignsCOWATControlled Oral Word Association TestCPTContinuous Performance TestcSLEchildhood-onset SLECVLTCalifornia Verbal Learning TestDKEFSTDelis-Kaplan Executive Function System TestDSdigit symbolHChealthy controlsHTHayling TestHVLTHopkins Verbal Learning TestIQintelligence quotientKABCKaufman Assessment Battery for ChildrenMMSEMini Mental State ExaminationMoCAMontreal Cognitive AssessmentNARTNational Adult Reading TestNPSLEneuropsychiatric SLENRnot reportedPASATPaced Auditory Serial Addition TestRAVLTRey Auditory Verbal Learning TestRCFTRey Complex Figure TestRTreaction timeSCWTStroop Color-Word TestSDMTSymbol Digit Modalities TestSEBCSecond Edition Block CountingTMTTrail Making TestWAIS-3Wechsler Adult Intelligence-IIIWAIS-4Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale–RevisedWASIWechsler Abbreviated Scale of IntelligenceWCSWisconsin Card SortWISC-4Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-IVWRAML-2Wide Range Assessment of Memory and Learning 2WRAT-3Wide Range Achievement Test–III