Table 13.
Robustness tests.
| Effect | (1) |
(2) |
(3) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Replacing the spatial weight matrix | Lagging the independent variable | Replacing the dependent variable | |
| Direct effect | 0.112*** (0.030) | 0.069** (0.032) | 0.193** (0.096) |
| Spillover effect | 0.411*** (0.047) | 0.371*** (0.062) | 1.003*** (0.187) |
| Total effect | 0.523*** (0.050) | 0.440*** (0.061) | 1.195** (0.188) |
| Control variables | YES | YES | YES |
| ρ | 0.448*** (0.048) | 0.542*** (0.052) | 0.485*** (0.055) |
| N | 540 | 510 | 540 |
| R2 | 0.141 | 0.234 | 0.174 |
| Log-L | 541.838 | 513.690 | 59.982 |
*p <10 %, **p <5 %, and ***p <1 %.