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. 2024 Aug 27;15:7226. doi: 10.1038/s41467-024-51411-9

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© The Author(s) 2024

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License, which permits any non-commercial use, sharing, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if you modified the licensed material. You do not have permission under this licence to share adapted material derived from this article or parts of it. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/.

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Fig. 6 — a Experimental and sample preparation scheme: Mice were immunized with intramuscular injection of LNP+subunit or LNP+subunit+IFN-β. Two injections were given (prime and boost shot) with 3 weeks between shots. Injection-site muscles were resected 16 h after the prime shot, and spleen tissue for the ELISpot assay was sampled 2 weeks after the boost shot. b, c PC projections of the cell type–wise DEG vectors (vs PBS injection) of 16 h p.i. samples. (b) PC1 projections and (c) PC2 projections of the DEG vectors are plotted as line plots. Line plot indicates mean values, and the error bands indicate 95% confidence intervals. d Fraction of injection-site mDC clusters in each treatment condition. e PRNT assay conducted on mice intramuscularly injected with PBS, LNP+subunit, or LNP+subunit+IFN-β. Results from IFN-γ ELISpot assay. f, g Effects of IFN-β i.m. co-injection were evaluated in (f) LNP+subunit and (g) LNP+mRNA (mRNA vaccine) vaccination strategies. h Experimental scheme: Mice were immunized with intramuscular injection of LNP+subunit or LNP+mRNA, with or without anti-IFN-β blocking antibody. Shots were given twice and the spleen samples for ELISpot assay were collected 2 weeks after the boost shot. i, j Results from the IFN-γ ELISpot assay. Effects of IFN-β blocking antibody i.m. co-injection were evaluated in (i) LNP+subunit and (j) LNP+mRNA vaccination strategies. k, l Antigen-specific T cell responses at 35 days after vaccination as determined by flow cytometry analysis. Effects of (k) IFN-β blockade and (l) IFN-β addition are evaluated in (top panels) CD8⁺ and (bottom panels) CD8^- T cells. All the data in bar plots are presented as mean values ±SEM. All statistical evaluations were conducted with two-tailed Mann–Whitney U tests (ns: nonsignificant). Schematic images were created with BioRender.com.