. 2024 Aug 6;13(8):954. doi: 10.3390/antiox13080954

Table 3.

Health benefits of different PFSP parts.

Type	Botanical Part	Experiment Design	Results	Ref.
Antioxidant activity
Clinical trial	Leaves	Consumption of PSPL (200 g/day) by basketball players for 7 weeks	↑ Plasma polyphenol concentration, vitamin E and C levels, and LDL lag time	[129]
Clinical trial	Leaves		↓ 8-OHdG	[129]
Clinical trial	Leaves	Healthy adults were treated with PSPL (200 g/day) for 7 weeks	↑ LDL lag time, glutathione concentration, and urinary total phenol excretion	[128]
Clinical trial	Leaves		↓ 8-OHdG	[128]
In vivo	Flesh	Eight-week-old male Sprague Dawley strain rats were administered with 100, 200, and 400 mg of PFSP anthocyanin/kg b.w. once a day for 6 weeks	↓ ROS and AGESs	[130]
In vitro	Leaves	Evaluation of the inhibitory effect of PFSP leaves on endothelial cell-mediated LDL oxidation	↑ Free radical scavenging activity	[155]
In vitro	Leaves		↑ Lag time for LDL oxidation	[155]
In vitro	Stem, Leaves, and Flesh	Application of extracts from PFSP stems, leaves, and flesh to evaluate in vitro antioxidant activities by DPPH and CUPRAC assay	↑ DPPH and CUPRAC activity	[127]
In vitro	Stem, Leaves, and Flesh		↑ TPC and TFC level	[127]
In vitro	Flesh	Huh7 cells were treated with three different PFSP-derived polyphenol extracts (1, 5, 10, 25, 50, and 75 μg/mL) for 24 h	↓ α-amylase, α-glucosidase, and XO enzyme	[123]
In vitro	Flesh		↑ Nrf2 factor and PON 1 transactivation	[123]
In vitro	Flesh and Peel	Isolation and quantification of colorless caffeoyl compounds from PFSP to test their antioxidant abilities	↑ Total antioxidant capacity	[156]
In vitro	Flesh and Peel		↑ Reducing power and DPPH	[156]
In vivo	Flesh and Peel	Six healthy volunteers were administered with a PFSP beverage, rich in anthocyanins (2.49 mg/mL), collecting blood and urine samples at fixed times (0, 0.5, 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, and 24 h) after feeding	↑ Urinary DPPH activity	[132]
In vitro	Flesh	PFSP species Guijingshu 09-7 was treated to four different cooking methods (raw, boiling, roasting, and steaming)	↑ FRAP and DPPH	[157]
In vitro	Flesh	Utilization of PFSP anthocyanin (0, 0.1, 1, 10, 20, 40, 50, 80, 100, and 200 g/mL) on PC12 cells for 24 h	↓ Aβ-induced cytotoxicity and Ca²⁺ concentration	[158]
In vitro	Flesh		↓ Intracellular ROS generation and LPO	[158]
Clinical trial	Leaves	PSPL (200 g/day for lunch and dinner) was consumed by 15 healthy male volunteer for 5 weeks	↑ TPC and FRAP	[131]
Clinical trial	Leaves		↓ TBARS, plasma PC, oxidative damage, and IL-6	[131]
In vitro	Flesh	PFSP anthocyanins were isolated from Ipomoea Batatas Poir Cv (5–20 µg/mL) and administered in PC12 cells for 24 h	↓ Aβ-induced toxicity, ROS, and lipid peroxidation levels	[126]
In vitro	Flesh		↓ Ca²⁺ intracellular concentration, and mitochondria dysfunction	[126]
Hepatoprotective action
In vivo	Leaves	Five-week-old male C57BL/6 mice received alcohol + PSPE (400 mg/kg bw for 7 days)	↓ ALT and AST enzyme levels	[151]
			↓ Blood alcohol concentration and inflammatory cells
			↓ TG and TC levels
In vivo	Flesh	Application of PSPP-1 (200 and 400 mg/kg; once daily until Day 28) in control mice (without any liver injury) and concanavalin A-induced liver injury mice	↓ ALT and AST enzyme levels	[147]
			↑ SOD and GSH levels
			↓ MDA level
			↓ TNF-α and IFN-γ levels
In vivo	Flesh	Application of a novel polysaccharide (PSPP-A) extracted and isolated from PFSP in C57BL/6J male mice fed for 8 weeks with a high-fat diet blended with PSPP-A (100 mg/kg, 200 mg/kg and 400 mg/kg)	↓ Body weight and liver index	[145]
			↓ ALT and AST content
			↓ TG and TC levels
In vivo	Flesh	Female ICR mice were treated with three kinds of polysaccharides obtained from PFSP (100, 200 and 400 mg/kg bw of each extract per day) for 31 days	↓ Relative liver weight	[148]
			↓ ALT, AST, alkaline phosphatase and MDA levels
			↑ SOD, CAT, and GSH-Px enzymes
			↑ GSH and T-AOC levels
In vivo	Flesh	Utilization of anthocyanins extract from PFSP (227.5, 455, and 910 mg/kg bw) in male mice after hepatic fibrosis induced by carbon tetrachloride for 3 weeks	↓ Relative liver weight	[149]
			↓ ALT, AST, and MDA levels
			↑ SOD and GPx activity levels
In vitro	Flesh	HepG2 hepatocytes were treated with AF (0, 50, 100, and 200 μg/mL)	↑ AMPK and ACC phosphorylation	[150]
In vitro	Flesh		↓ TG and TC levels	[150]
In vitro	Flesh	HepG2 cells were treated with raw, steamed, microwaving and roasted PFSP (100 μg/mL) for 24 h.	↓ ROS, GPx, and GR	[159]
			↑ GSH levels
			↑ HO-1, NQO1, and GCLC expression
Anti-inflammatory effect
In vitro	Leaves	HAECs were treated with 100 μg/mL PSPLE for 24 h	↓ TNF-α-induced monocyte-endothelial cell adhesion	[160]
			↓ ERK1, and ERK2 expression
			↓ VCAM-1, IL-8, and CD40 expression
In vitro	Flesh	Effect of PFSP TNG 75 extracts ((1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 mg/mL) on RAW264.7 murine macrophage cells for 24 h	↓ NO production	[161]
In vitro	Flesh		↓ NF-kβ, IL-6, and TNF-α levels	[161]
In vitro	Flesh	Application of two anthocyanins, FAC-PSP and p-BAC-PSP (25, 50, 100, and 200 μg/mL), on RAW264.7 macrophages	↓ NO production level	[162]
In vitro	Flesh		↓ NO production level	[162]
In vivo	Flesh	(DSS)-induced colitis mice treated with 400 mg/kg of ASPP once per day for 30 days	↓ TNF-α release level	[163]
In vivo	Flesh		↓ IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α	[163]
In vitro	Leaves	Monosodium urate-induced RAW264.7 cells were treated with different concentrations (20, 40, 60 μg/mL) of PSPLP for 24 h	↑ SCFAs contents	[164]
In vitro	Leaves		↓ IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α	[164]
In vivo	Flesh	Male Wistar rats were given purple sweet potato extract (400 mg/kg/day for 9 days, once per day)	↓ IL-1β, MDA, COMP, and MMP-3 levels	[165]
In vivo	Flesh		↑ chondrocytes	[165]
In vitro	Leaves	Differentiated 3T3-L1 cells treated with PSPLE (0, 1, 2, and 4 mg/mL) for 72 h	↓ IL-6 and TNF-α expression	[166]
In vitro	Leaves		↑ PARP and cellular apoptosis	[166]
Hypoglycemic and antidiabetic effect
In vivo	Leaves	Alloxan-induced diabetic male Wistar rats of 8–10 weeks old were treated with purple sweet potato leaves (50, 100, and 200 mg/kg bw) for 15 days	↓ MDA and blood glucose levels	[167]
In vivo	Leaves		↑ Pancreatic histopathological features	[167]
In vitro	Flesh	Utilization of three anthocyanins (3-caffeoyl-phydroxybenzoyl-sophoroside-5-glucoside, peonidin 3-caffeoyl sophoroside-5-glucoside, and peonidin 3-(6″-caffeoyl-6‴-feruloyl sophoroside)-5-glucoside) from PFSP (0, 10, and 50 μg/mL; 3 h) on human HepG2 cells	↓ Glucose production	[168]
In vivo	Flesh	Evaluating the effect of anthocyanin on fasting blood glucose levels in 6-week-old male C57BL/6 mice fed a 60% high-fat diet for 14 weeks	↓ Glucose production	[168]
In vivo	Flesh	Application of diacylated AF-PSPs (25 and 50 mg/kg bw) into free (SPF)-grade male Kun-Ming strain mice induced by a high-fructose/high-fat diet for nine weeks	↓ TG, TC, MDA, fasting blood glucose values, and blood glucose levels	[169]
In vivo	Flesh		↑ T–SOD activity	[169]
In vivo	Flesh	Male mice were fed with a high-fat diet and STZ to induce T2DM. The model mice were treated with 0, 227.5, 455, or 910 mg/kg bw of PSPA for ten days	↓ Blood glucose levels	[170]
In vivo	Flesh		↑ GSH-Px level	[170]
In vitro	Leaves	Application of four crude extracts (IBH, IBM, IBB, and IBW; 0.1 mg/mL) in 3T3-L1 preadipocytes	↑ PI3K, AKT, and Glut4 phosphorylation	[171]
In vitro	Leaves		↑ Glucose uptake	[171]
Clinical trial	Flesh and Peel	Double blinded pre-post test control group design in patients with T2DM (75 mL of PFSP that contained 11 g of anthocyanins—3 times per day 30 min after meal) for 4 weeks	↓ MDA	[172]
			↓ Fasting plasma glucose and 2hpppg levels
			↓ Glycated albumin level
Neuroprotective effect
In vivo	Flesh	Application of PFSP anthocyanin (700 mg/kg/day) in eight-week-old C57BL 6J mice for 20 weeks by oral gavage	↑ Memory function, HFD-induced impairment mouse behavior, and IL-10 level	[173]
			↓ Body weight, fat content, hyperlipemia, and endotoxin level
			↓ COX-2, TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, iNOS, ERK, JNK, and NF-kβ
In vivo	Flesh	Utilization of purple sweet potato water extract (200 mg/kg bw*day) in d-galactose-induced male Wistar rats for 70 days	↓ TNF-α, p53, and GFAP expression	[174]
In vivo	Flesh		↑ BDNF levels and spatial working memory	[174]
In vitro	Leaves	BV-2 microglia cells were treated with purple sweet potato leaf extract (10–200 µg/mL) for 24 h	↓ NO, iNOS, COX-2, and TNF-α levels	[175]
In vivo	Flesh	15-month-old D-galactose-induced male Kunming mice were treated with PFSP anthocyanins (500 mg/kg*day bw) for 8 weeks by oral gavage	↓ Step-through latency, AGEs, Cu/Zn-SOD, and CAT activity	[176]
			↑ Spatial learning and memory ability
			↓ JNK and cytochrome c levels
In vivo	Flesh	Anthocyanins extracted from “Balinese” cultivar of PFSP administered to rat models of induced ischemic stroke	↑ Bcl-2 expression	[177]
In vivo	Flesh		↓ Cytochrome C, caspase-3 levels, and apoptosis rate	[177]
In vivo	Flesh	9-week-old male Kunming mice induced by D-galactose were administrated with PFSP anthocyanins (100 mg/kg*day) for 4 weeks via the oral route	↓ GFAP, COX-2, NF-kβ, and iNOS expression	[178]
			↓ MDA content
			↑ Cu/Zn-SOD and CAT activity
Antimicrobial and prebiotic activity
In vitro	Flesh	Application of five peonidin-based anthocyanins from PFSP (0, 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2, and 2.5 mg/mL) to test the growth of probiotics and harmful bacteria	↑ Bifidobacterium bifidum, Bifidobacterium adolescentis, Bifidobacterium infantis, and Lactobacillus acidophilus	[179]
In vitro	Flesh		↓ Staphylococcus aureus and Salmonella typhimurium	[179]
In vivo	Flesh and peel	Three polysaccharides were extracted from PFSP and administered in female ICR mice (400 mg/kg bw) for 30 days by oral gavage	↑ Bacteroidetes, Ruminococcaceae, Lachnospiraceae, Ruminococcus, and Oscillospir	[180]
In vivo	Flesh and peel		↓ Firmicutes, Proteobacteria, Alcaligenaceae, and Sutterella	[180]
In vitro	Flesh and Peel	Utilization of PFSP anthocyanin to evaluate the modulatory effect on human intestinal microbiota using fecal samples from volunteers (1% w/v)	↑ Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus/Enterococcus spp.	[181]
			↓ Bacteroides-Prevotella and Clostridium histolyticum
			↑ SCFA concentration
In vivo	Flesh	7-week-old male Fischer 344 rats were treated with PFSP polyphenols (1% bw) for 27 days	↑ Dorea, cecal mucin, and cecal IgA level	[182]
In vivo	Flesh		↓ Oscillospira and Bacteroides, and indole production	[182]
In vitro	Flesh	Assessment of PFSP polyphenols (0.16%) by colonic fermentation using pig colonic digest under anaerobic conditions at 37 °C for 48 h	↑ Eubacterium spp., Lactobacillus spp., Bifidobacterium spp., Collinsella stercoris, and Bulleidia p1630cJ	[183]
In vitro	Flesh		↓ Clostridium spp. and Acidaminococcus spp.	[183]
Hypouricemic action
In vivo	Flesh	SPF grade 8-week male Kun-Ming induced-hyperuricemia mice were treated with PFSP anthocyanins (25 mg/kg bw) and allopurinol (2.5 and 5 mg/kg bw)	↓ Serum uric acid level	[184]
In vivo	Flesh		↓ TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, and TGF-β1 expression	[184]
In vivo	Flesh	Oral application of PFSP anthocyanins (100 mg/kg bw) in three-week-old potassium oxonate-induced hyperuricemia ICR male mice	↓ Serum acid uric concentration	[185]
In vitro	Flesh and Peel	PFSP anthocyanins were evaluated for their inhibitory activity on commercial XO by spectrophotometrically measuring the formation of UA	↑ Inhibition XO activity rate	[186]
In vivo	Flesh and Peel	Hyperuricemia mice were administered with PFSP anthocyanins (25 and 100 mg/kg bw) orally for 7 days	↓ Uric acid level	[32]
In vivo	Flesh and Peel		↓ 5′-NT and XO enzyme activity	[32]
In vivo	Flesh	Utilization of an anthocyanin-rich purple sweet potato extract (75, 150, and 300 mg/kg bw, once daily) in potassium oxonate-induced hyperuricemia male Kun-Ming strain mice for 7 days	↓ Serum uric acid level	[187]
In vivo	Flesh		↓ BUN and Cr levels	[187]
Antitumoral and antimutation activity
In vitro	Flesh	NALM6 human B-ALL cells were treated with PFSP anthocyanins (0, 20, 40, and 60 μg/mL) for 24 h	↓ NALM6 cell viability and S100A4 protein expression	[188]
In vitro	Flesh		↑ NALM6 cells apoptosis and p38	[188]
In vitro	Flesh	Utilization of three polysaccharides, PSPP1-1, PSPP2-1, and PSPP3-1, isolated from PFSP (100, 200, 300, 400, 500 μg/mL for SGC7901; 200, 400, 600, 800, 1000 μg/mL for SW620) on SGC7901 and SW620 tumor cells	↑ % Inhibition of tumor cells rate	[59]
In vitro	Leaves and Flesh	Application of anthocyanins isolated from the PFSP cultivar Bhu Krishma and the leaves of accession S-1467 (100, 200, and 400 μg/mL) in human mammalian epithelial cells (MCF-10A)	↑ MCF-7, HeLa, and HCT-116 cells’ apoptosis	[189]
In vitro	Flesh	PFSP glucan was extracted and tested (0, 15.625, 31.25, 62.5, 125, 250, 500, and 1000 μg/mL) on HepG2, LOVO, MCF-7, LO2, GES-1, MCF-10A, NCM460, SGC-7901, and HGC-27 cells for 72 h	↑ % Inhibition in liver, colonic, and breast cells	[190]
In vitro	Flesh	Human colon cancer HT-29 cells were treated with PFSP polysaccharide (0, 10, 20, 40, 80, 160, and 320 μg/mL) for 24, 36, and 48 h	↓ Tumor cell viability	[191]
In vivo	Flesh	Evaluation of PFSP anthocyanin (100, 500, or 1000 mg/kg bw) in SPF-grade ICR mice implanted with mice S180 anal sarcoma cells for 5 weeks by oral gavage	↑ % Inhibition of tumor cells rate	[192]
In vivo	Flesh and Peel	C57BL/6J-APC^MIN/+ mice were treated with purple sweet potato flesh and peel (10%) for 18 weeks	↓ Adenoma number	[193]

FAC-PSP: free anthocyanin compounds from purple sweet potato; p-BAC-PSP: protein-bound anthocyanin compounds from purple sweet potato; NO: nitric oxide; TNF-α: tumor necrosis factor-α; PSPP1-1: purple sweet potato polysaccharide composed of rhamnose, xylose, glucose, and galactose and their corresponding molar ratios of 17.54:1.00:2.67:1.10; PSPP2-1: purple sweet potato polysaccharide composed of rhamnose and galactose; PSPP3-1: purple sweet potato polysaccharide composed of rhamnose, xylose, glucose, and galactose, and their corresponding molar ratios of 3.51:1.92:1.44:1.00; DSS: dextran sulphate sodium; ASPP: alkali-soluble polysaccharide from purple flesh sweet potato; IL: interleukin; PSPLP: purple sweet potato leaf polyphenols; PSPP-1: purple sweet potato polysaccharide of glucose, galacturonic acid, galactose, arabinose, rhamnose, and glucuronic acid (molar ratio 320:20:19:10:8:2); ALT: alanine aminotransferase; AST: aspartate aminotransferase; IFN-γ: interferon-γ; T-SOD/SOD: total superoxide dismutase; GSH: glutathione; MDA: malondialdehyde; PSPP-A: purple sweet potato polysaccharide composed of L-rhamnose, D-arabinose, D-galactose, D-glucose, and D-glucuronic acid (molar ratios 1.89:8.45:1.95:1.13:1); TC: total cholesterol; TG: triglyceride; bw: body weight; ICR: Institute for Cancer Research; T-AOC: total antioxidant capacity; CAT: catalase; GSH-Px/GPx: glutathione peroxidase; AF: anthocyanin fraction from purple-fleshed sweet potato; AMPK: adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase; ACC: acetyl-coenzyme A carboxylase; ROS: reactive oxygen species; GR: glutathione reductase; HO-1: heme oxygenase-1; NQO₁: NAD(P)H quinone oxidoreductase 1; GCLC: gamma glutamate-cysteine ligase; AF-PSPs: diacylated anthocyanins from purple sweet potato; AGESs: advanced glycation end products; COMP: cartilage oligomeric matrix protein; MMP-3: matrix metalloproteinase-3; LDL: low-density lipoprotein; CUPRAC: cupric reducing antioxidant capacity assay; TFC: total flavonoids content; IBH: n-hexane-fraction; IBM: 95% MeOH-fraction; IBB: n-BuOH-fraction; IBW: H₂O-soluble fraction; PI3K: phosphoinositide 3 kinase; AKT: protein kinase B; Glut4: glucose transporter type 4; PSPLE: water-extracted purple sweet potato leaves authenticated by the National Plant Genetic Resources Centre of Taiwan Agricultural Research Institute with the account number Pin 375; PARP: cleaved caspase-3 and poly ADP-ribose polymerase; XO: xanthine oxidase enzyme; Nrf2: nuclear factor E2-related factor 2 transcription; PON 1: paraoxonase 1 enzyme; PFSP TNG 75: purple-fleshed sweet potato var. “Tainung 73”; NF-κβ: Nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells; HAECs: human aortic endothelial cells; PSPLE/PSPL: purple sweet potato leaf extract/purple sweet potato leaves; ERK/ERK1/ERK2; extracellular signal-regulated kinase; VCAM-1: vascular cell adhesion molecule 1; CD40: Cluster of differentiation 40; Bcl-2: B-cell lymphoma 2; GFAP: glial fibrillary acidic protein; iNOS: inducible nitric oxide synthase; COX-2: cyclooxygenase-2; Cu/Zn-SOD: copper/zinc superoxide dismutase; 2hpppg: 2 h post-prandial plasma glucose levels; 2DM: type 2 diabetes mellitus; Aβ: β-amyloid peptide; LPO: lipid peroxidation; HepG2: human hepatoma cell line; LOVO: human colonic carcinoma cell line; MCF-7: human breast carcinoma cell line; LO2: human normal hepatocyte GES-1: human normal stomach mucosa epithelial cell line; MCF-10A: human normal breast epithelial cell line; NCM460: human normal colon epithelial cell; SGC-7901 and HGC-27: human gastric carcinoma cell lines; TBARS: thiobarbituric acid-reactive substance; Plasma PC: protein carbonyl, a marker of protein oxidation; HFD: high-fat diet; JNK: c-Jun N-terminal kinase; p53: tumor protein P53; GFAP: glial fibrillary acidic protein; BDNF: brain-derived neurotrophic factor; TGF-β1: Transforming growth factor β; BUN: serum blood urea nitrogen; Cr: creatine; SCFA: short-chain fatty acid; IgA: immunoglobulin A; 8-OHdG: urinary 8-hydroxy-2-deoxyguanosine; 5′-NT: 5′-nucleotidase enzyme; STZ: streptozotocin; DPPH: 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl, ↑ increase; ↓ decrease.