Table 1.

Summarising the key differences and similarities between cuttlefish bone and other marine sources.

Marine Sources	Reference	Porosity	Modulus of Elasticity	Biocompatibility	Strength	Non-Toxicity	Stability Post-Hydrothermal	Biodegradability	Special Components	Biomedical Applications	Environmental Impact
Cuttlefish Bone	[25,29,30]	High (~93%)	Optimal	High	High	High	High	Yes	Aragonite, chitin (biodegradable, antimicrobial, hemostatic)	Bone tissue engineering, scaffolds, hydroxyapatite (HAp) synthesis	Reduces biowaste, by transforming raw materials into higher-value products. uses
Nacre	[31,32]	Low to moderate	High	High	High	High	low	yes	Aragonite, Organic Matrix	Bone grafts, implants	Generally sustainable
Coral	[33,34]	Moderate	Moderate	High	Moderate	High	Low	yes	Calcium Carbonate	Bone grafts, dental implants	Sustainable with some environmental impact due to extraction
Sea Sponges	[6,15]	High	Low	High	Low	High	N/A	Yes	Silica and chitin	Tissue engineering scaffolds	Generally sustainable
Sea Urchins	[15,31]	High	Low	High	Low	High	N/A	Yes	Magnesium Calcite	Tissue engineering, biomedical devices	Generally sustainable
Crab Shells	[4,35]	Low to moderate	Moderate	High	Moderate	High	N/A	Yes	Chitin, Calcium Carbonate	Wound healing, drug delivery, tissue engineering	Generally sustainable
Oyster Shells	[4,36]	Low to moderate	Moderate	High	Moderate	High	N/A	Yes	Calcium Carbonate	Bone grafts, dental implants	Generally sustainable