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Typical impedance spectrum of a battery in an exaggerated Nyquist plot. Here, Rs is the series resistance, R1 and R2 are the charge transfer resistances of the electrodes, Cdl1 and Cdl2 are the double layer capacitances of the electrodes, σ is the Warburg coefficient, R3 is the intersection of the Warburg impedance. Reproduced from Ref. [187], CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.
