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. 2024 Aug 30;15:7516. doi: 10.1038/s41467-024-51762-3

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© The Author(s) 2024

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License, which permits any non-commercial use, sharing, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if you modified the licensed material. You do not have permission under this licence to share adapted material derived from this article or parts of it. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/.

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Fig. 1 — a Schematics showing the Pb−Sn alloyed in homogenous and gradient structures. b Illustration of the FEC system to prepare Pb−Sn perovskite crystals under different surrounding atmospheres. c Derived [Sn]/([Sn]+[Pb]) atomic ratios from the ICP-OES as a function of the Sn concentration in the growth solution. The error bars are from experimental uncertainties. d X-ray 2θ scan on the top facet of Pb−Sn single crystals prepared under various Pb:Sn feed ratios and Pb_0.7Sn_0.3 single crystals prepared under various oxygen concentrations. The insets show the crystal growth solution. e Absorption spectra of Pb−Sn single crystals in reflectance mode. f High-resolution XRD rocking curve of the (002) diffraction peak of Pb_0.7Sn_0.3 single crystals prepared under different conditions.