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. 2024 Aug 31;12:93. doi: 10.1186/s40364-024-00644-3

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© The Author(s) 2024

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data.

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Fig. 1 — Application field of mRNA vaccines. Legend: The mRNA vaccine delivery systems primarily encompass three categories: 1) Carrier-based delivery systems, including lipid nanoparticles (LNPs), cationic nanoemulsions (CNEs), cationic peptides (e.g., protamine), viral replicating particles (VRPs), and polymers. 2) Dendritic cell mRNA delivery systems (DCs mRNA). 3) Naked mRNA. Presently, mRNA vaccines are predominantly employed in the treatment of various diseases, such as: 1) Cardiovascular diseases, including myocardial infarction and heart failure [6]. 2) Metabolic diseases, such as muscular dystrophy [7] and porphyria [8]. 3) Genetic disorders, including glycogen storage disease [9]. 4) Allergic diseases, such as food allergies [27]. 5) Infectious diseases, including human papillomavirus (HPV) [28], Corona Virus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) [29], and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) [30], among others. 6) Tumors, such as prostate cancer [10] and glioma [31], among others. Naked mRNA vaccines are primarily utilized in the treatment of tumors [32] and infectious diseases [33]. DC-loaded mRNA vaccines are mainly applied in the treatment of tumors [10]