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. 2024 Aug 31;12:93. doi: 10.1186/s40364-024-00644-3

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© The Author(s) 2024

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data.

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Fig. 2 — mRNA vaccine induces innate immune mechanism. Legend: Upon stimulation of DC cells, the T cells undergo identification, whereby the MHC complex and TCR receptor on their surface serve as the initial signals for cellular immune response. Antigen-presenting cells (APCs) recognize the mRNA, activating TLR and prompting the detection of PAMP, thereby initiating the second signal. The activated second signal translocates to the nucleus as a transcription factor, recruiting various Trans-acting factors to facilitate the expression of proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines. This dual signal pathway effectively activates the initial T cells. In non-immune cells, RIG-I and MDA5 are involved in sensing exogenous mRNA and inducing cytokines/chemokines to recruit innate immune cells