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. 2024 Sep 2;14:20340. doi: 10.1038/s41598-024-71268-8

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© The Author(s) 2024

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License, which permits any non-commercial use, sharing, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if you modified the licensed material. You do not have permission under this licence to share adapted material derived from this article or parts of it. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/.

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Fig. 5 — Panel data analysis examining the relationship between intensity of exposure to SBM and infant and child mortality. Note: A categorical variable was created using mean SBM coverage among households at the district-level with the following categories: 0%, > 0 and < 10%, 10 to < 20%, 20 to < 30%, and ≤ 60% coverage between 2015 and 2020. The reference group was districts with no toilets constructed under SBM in a particular year between 2015 and 2020. The model includes district-level controls for child birth order, maternal education, religion, caste, access to health services and insurance, and household wealth, cooking fuel, and piped water access. The model includes district-level fixed effects and standard errors are clustered at the district-level.