Effects of intravenous saline, naltrexone, and nalmefene on cortisol, in male and female volunteers (time course: panel a; area under the curve: panel b). Data (n = 18) are presented as mean ± standard error of the mean. Time course data (a): A two-way repeated measures ANOVA was significant for treatment, F (2, 34) = 21.73, p < .0001, and time, F(12, 204) = 4.30, p < .0001, main effects and for their interaction, F(24, 408) = 7.71, p < .0001. Area under the curve (AUC) data for the period 0 to 180 min (b): A one-way repeated measures ANOVA was significant for treatment day, F (2, 34) = 23.79, p < .0001. Black lines in panel (b) show significant Tukey post hoc tests.