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. 2024 Sep 6;22:548. doi: 10.1186/s12951-024-02817-6

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© The Author(s) 2024

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License, which permits any non-commercial use, sharing, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if you modified the licensed material. You do not have permission under this licence to share adapted material derived from this article or parts of it. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/.

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Fig. 1 — Mitochondria fission effect of S. aureus EV-mediated infection. (A) Representative STORM images of mitochondria in epithelial keratinocyte (HaCaT) cells treated with S. aureus EVs (left) or S. epidermidis EVs (right) after 30 min of EV infection. Enlargement of the boxed region is shown at the bottom. Schematic diagrams are shown together. (B) Quantitative analysis of the mitochondrial ultrastructural changes in terms of the ratio of long (with > 5 μm longest diameter) and short mitochondria (with < 5 μm longest diameter) and ratio of branched mitochondria from STORM images. (n = 10, mean ± SD) (C) Representative TEM images of HaCaT cells treated with S. aureus (left) or S. epidermidis (right) EVs after 30 min of EV infection. Arrows: mitochondrial fission. (D) Quantitative analysis of the size of the mitochondria in terms of the longer diameter from TEM images. (n = 10, mean ± SD) (ns: p > 0.05, ***p < 0.001) Scale bars: (A) 5 μm (top), 1 μm (bottom). (C) 1 μm