Table 1.
Overview of the main study characteristics and results of included human studies
| Author (Year) | FGR Definition | FGR, n | Control, n | Age | Significant Differences | Nonsignificant Results |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Aburawi (2011) (22) | BW > −2 SD | 17 | 15 | 1 wk | Cardiac morphology: LVMI increased in FGR. Coronary flow: Basal and peak flow velocity increased in FGR. | Cardiac morphology: LV end-diastolic dimension, LVM. Systolic function: Cardiac output, mitral peak early wave, fractional shortening. |
| Akazawa (2016) (23) | BW < p10 | 38 | 30 | 1 wk | Cardiac morphology: LV diastolic dimensions decreased in SGA. Systolic function: stroke volume, left cardiac output, septal s′ peak velocity, mitral lateral s′ increased in SGA, global longitudinal strain decreased in SGA. Diastolic function: mitral annular early diastolic velocity decreased in SGA, isovolumetric relaxation time increased in severe SGA. | Cardiac morphology: LV posterior wall, RWT, LVMI. Systolic function: fractional shortening, left cardiac output index, tricuspid lateral s′, global circumferential strain. Diastolic function: mitral E wave, mitral A wave, mitral E/A ratio, tricuspid E wave, tricuspid A wave, tricuspid E/A ratio, mitral E deceleration time, tricuspid e′, E/e′ (LV lateral), E/e′ (septal), E/e′ (RV), MPI. |
| Akazawa (2018) (24) | BW < p10 | 31 | 27 | 1 wk | Cardiac morphology: LV diastolic dimension decreased in SGA, LV mass index increased in SGA. Systolic function: fractional shortening increased in SGA, stroke volume, left cardiac output, mitral lateral annular systolic (S′) decreased in SGA. Diastolic function: left isovolumic relaxation time increased in SGA, mitral early diastolic lateral (E′) tissue Doppler velocity decreased in SGA. | Cardiac morphology: LVM. Systolic function: left cardiac output index, Septal S′ peak velocity. Diastolic function: mitral E wave, mitral A wave, mitral E/A ratio, mitral E deceleration time, mitral septal E′ tissue Doppler velocity. |
| Altin (2012) (25) | BW > −2 SD | 30 | 30 | 72 h postpartum | Cardiac morphology: IVSd, LVPWTd, LVEDd, LVESd, and LVOTd decreased in SGA. LVEDdI increased in SGA. Systolic function: LV stroke volume, LV cardiac output, LV myocardial systolic peak velocity, RV myocardial systolic peak velocity, IVS myocardial peak velocity decreased in SGA. LV cardiac index increased in SGA. Diastolic function: LV E/A increased. LV Em/Am, RV Am decreased. | Systolic function: EF, fractional shortening, LV stroke index. Diastolic function: LV E, LV A, RV E, RV A, RV E/A, LV Em, LV Am, LV E/Em, RV Em, RV Em/Am, RV E/Em, IVS Em, IVS Am, IVS Em/Am. |
| 3 mo | Cardiac morphology: LVPWTd, LVEDd, LVESd, LVOTd decreased in SGA. LVEDdI increased in SGA. Systolic function: LV stroke volume, LV cardiac output decreased in SGA. LV cardiac index increased in SGA. | Cardiac morphology: IVSd. Systolic function: LVEF, fractional shortening, LV stroke index, LV myocardial systolic peak velocity, RV myocardial systolic peak velocity, IVS myocardial peak velocity. Diastolic function: LV E, LV A, LV E/A, RV E, RV A, RV E/A, LV Em, LV Am, LV Em/Am, LV E/Em, RV Em, RV Am, RV Em/Am, RV E/Em, IVS Em, IVS Am, IVS Em/Am. | ||||
| 6 mo | Cardiac morphology: LVEDdI and increased in SGA. Systolic function: LV stroke volume decreased in SGA. LV cardiac index increased in SGA. | Cardiac morphology: IVSd, LVPWTd, LVEDd, LVOTd. Systolic function: EF, fractional shortening, LV stroke index, LV cardiac output, LV myocardial systolic peak velocity, RV myocardial systolic peak velocity, IVS myocardial peak velocity. Diastolic function: LV E, LV A, LV E/A, RV E, RV A, RV E/A, LV Em, LV Am, LV Em/Am, LV E/Em, RV Em, RV Am, RV Em/Am, RV E/Em, IVS Em, IVS Am, IVS Em/Am. | ||||
| Änhagen (2022) (12) | BW > −2.5 SD or 22% lower fetal weight than predicted for GA and/or 10% or greater drop in fetal growth velocity based on the weight that would be predicted from the most recent ultrasound examination | 19 | 35 | 12–72-h postpartum | Left ventricle: LVEDd, IVSd, LVPWTd, LV mass, LV mass index, VL septum systole, VL septum diastole, sphericity index increased. Right ventricle: DL septum, VL septum systole, DL free wall, VL free wall systole, VL free wall diastole increased. | Left ventricle: RWT, DL septum, DL lateral wall, VL lateral wall systole, VL lateral wall diastole, average four segment SL, average SL septal wall, average SL lateral wall. Right ventricle: VL septum diastole. |
| 3–4 mo | Left ventricle: LV mass index increased. DL septum, VL septum diastole, VL septum systole, DL lateral wall, VL lateral wall systole, VL lateral wall diastole, average four segment SL, average SL septal wall, average SL lateral wall, sphericity index decreased. Right ventricle: DL septum, VL septum diastole decreased. | Left ventricle: LVEDd, IVSd, LVPWd, LVM, RWT. Right ventricle: VL septum systole, DL free wall, VL free wall systole, VL free wall diastole. | ||||
| Arnott (2015) (26) | BW < p10 | 157 | 627 | 34–49 yr | Cardiac morphology (indexed for BSA): LVEDD, LVESD, LV basal diameter, RV base-to-apex increased. Systolic function (adjusted for age, sex, blood pressure, physical activity levels, and socioeconomic status): LV stroke volume decreased. | Cardiac morphology (indexed for BSA): Left atrial area, left atrial volume, right atrial area, right atrial volume, LV end-systolic volume, LV end-diastolic volume, LVM, RV basal diameter, RV end-systolic volume, RV end-diastolic volume. Systolic function (adjusted for age, sex, blood pressure, physical activity levels, and socioeconomic status): LV S′ lateral, LV stroke volume, EF, LV cardiac output, LV fractional area change, RV fractional area change. Diastolic function (adjusted for age, sex, blood pressure, physical activity levels, and socioeconomic status): LV E wave, LV A wave, LV E′ medial, LV E′ lateral, LV E/E′, LV deceleration time. |
| Bjarnegård (2013) (27) | BW > −2.5 SD | 19 | 18 | 23 yr | Cardiac morphology: LVEDd decreased in FGR. | Cardiac morphology: Left atrium, IVSd, LVPWd, LVMI. |
| Castagno (2019) (28) | BW < p10 | 20 | 20 | 2 yr | Cardiac morphology: LVEDd, LVESd, LV area, LV volume decreased in SGA. LVPW, RWT increased in SGA. Systolic function: LV stroke volume, TAPSE decreased in SGA. Diastolic function: Mitral lateral E′ velocity decreased in SGA. | Cardiac morphology: IVSd, LVM, LVMI. Systolic function: Fractional shortening, LVEF, LV output. Diastolic function: Mitral E peak, mitral A peak, E/A ratio, E/E′ ratio. |
| Cinar (2013) (29) | BW < p10, ponderal index > 2.25 (symmetric) | 39 | 50 | 48–72-h postpartum | Cardiac morphology: LVEDd, LVPWd, LVWPDs, RWT, LVM, LVMI decreased in FGR. | Cardiac morphology: IVSd, IVSs, LVESd, LVPWs. Systolic function: LVEF, fractional shortening. |
| BW < p10, ponderal index < 2.25 (asymmetric) | 62 | 50 | 48–72-h postpartum | Cardiac morphology: LVEDd, LVESd, LVPWd, LVPWs, RWT, LVM, LVMI decreased in FGR. | Cardiac morphology: IVSd, IVSs. Systolic function: LVEF, fractional shortening. | |
| Cohen (2017) (30) | EFW < p10 and/or fetal growth plus abnormal Doppler | 24 | 23 preterm 19 term | 24 h | Cardiac morphology: 3-D sphericity index increased in FGR. | Cardiac morphology: 2-D sphericity index, LVPWd, RWT. Diastolic function: Lateral E/e′ ratio, medial E/e′ ratio. |
| 1 mo | Cardiac morphology: 2-D sphericity index decreased in FGR. 3-D sphericity index increased in FGR. Diastolic function: Medial and lateral E/e′ ratio decreased in FGR. | Cardiac morphology: LVPWd, RWT. | ||||
| 6 mo | No significant differences. | Cardiac morphology: 2-D sphericity index, 3-D sphericity index, LVPWd, RWT. Diastolic function: Lateral E/e′ ratio, medial E/e′ ratio. | ||||
| Crispi (2010) (31) | BW < p10 with normal PI UA | 40 | 120 | 5 yr | Cardiac morphology: Base-to-apex length LV decreased in FGR. Basal diameter LV and RV, sphericity index LV and RV increased in FGR. Systolic function: Mitral septal S′, E/E′ (lateral), E/E′ (septal) decreased in FGR. Left cardiac output increased in FGR. Diastolic function: Mitral E deceleration time, tricuspid E deceleration time increased in FGR. | Cardiac morphology: IVSd, LVPWd, RWT. Systolic function: Left stroke volume, LVEF, mitral lateral S′, tricuspid S′. Diastolic function: Mitral E wave, mitral A wave, mitral E/A ratio, tricuspid E wave, tricuspid A wave, tricuspid E/A ratio, left isovolumic relaxation time, tricuspid E deceleration time, mitral lateral E′, mitral septal E′, tricuspid E′, E/E′ (lateral), E/E′ (septal). |
| BW < p10 with abnormal (PI > 2SDs) | 40 | 120 | 5 yr | Cardiac morphology: Basal diameter LV, sphericity index LV, and RV increased in FGR. Systolic function: Left stroke volume, mitral lateral S′, mitral septal S′, tricuspid S′ decreased in FGR. Diastolic function: Mitral E deceleration time, tricuspid E deceleration time E/E′ (lateral), E/E′ (septal) increased in FGR. Mitral lateral E′, mitral septal E′, tricuspid E′ decreased in FGR. | Cardiac morphology: IVSd, LVPWd, RWT. Systolic function: LVEF. Diastolic function: Mitral E wave, mitral A wave, mitral E/A ratio, tricuspid A wave, tricuspid E/A ratio, left isovolumic relaxation time. | |
| Crispi (2012) (32) | BW p3–p10 with normal CPR | 25 | 100 | 5 yr | Cardiac morphology: left sphericity index decreased in FGR. Systolic function: normalized left stroke volume, MAPSE decreased in FGR. Normalized left cardiac output, left ventricular thickening increased in FGR. Diastolic function: Mitral isovolumic relaxation time′. | Cardiac morphology: Right sphericity index, RWT. Systolic function: LVEF, mitral S′, TAPSE, tricuspid S′. Diastolic function: Mitral E deceleration time, mitral E/A ratio, mitral E′, mitral A′, mitral E′/A′, left isovolumic relaxation time, E/E′, tricuspid E deceleration time, tricuspid E/A ratio, tricuspid E′, tricuspid A′, tricuspid E′/A′, tricuspid isovolumic relaxation time′. |
| BW < p3 or abnormal CPR | 25 | 100 | 4 yr | Cardiac morphology: left and right sphericity index decreased in FGR.Systolic function: normalized left stroke volume, tricuspid S′, MAPSE decreased in FGR. Normalized left cardiac output, left ventricular thickening increased in FGR. Diastolic function: mitral E deceleration time, mitral E′/A′ increased in FGR. Mitral A′ decreased in FGR. | Cardiac morphology: RWT. Systolic function: LVEF. Diastolic function: Mitral E/A ratio, mitral E′, mitral E′/A′, left isovolumic relaxation time, mitral isovolumic relaxation time′, E/E′, tricuspid E/A ratio, tricuspid E′, tricuspid A′, tricuspid E′/A′, tricuspid isovolumic relaxation time′. | |
| Cruz–Lemini (2015) (10) | EFW and BW < p10 | 80 | 80 | 6.5 mo | Cardiac morphology: Left atrial area IVS increased in FGR. Left sphericity index decreased in FGR. Systolic function: right cardiac output, TAPSE, MAPSE, Tricuspid S′ decreased in FGR. Diastolic function: Left isovolumetric relaxation time, mitral E deceleration time, mitral A duration, tricuspid E deceleration time, tricuspid A duration increased in FGR. Mitral lateral E′, mitral lateral A′, tricuspid E/A ratio, tricuspid E′, tricuspid A′ decreased in FGR. | Systolic function: LVEF, left stroke volume, right stroke volume, left cardiac output. Diastolic function: Mitral E/A ratio. |
| Czernik (2013) (33) | BW < p3 | 19 | 21 | 2 days | Cardiac morphology: LVPWd, LVEDd, LVM, mitral valve increased in FGR. Systolic function: fractional shortening decreased in FGR. | Cardiac morphology: IVSd. Systolic function: left ventricular output. |
| 28 days | Cardiac morphology: Mitral valve increased in FGR. | Cardiac morphology: IVSd, LVPWd, LVM.Systolic function: fractional shortening, left ventricular output. | ||||
| Elmakaty (2023) (34) | BW < p10 | 114 | 414 | 2–3 days | Cardiac morphology: IVSd, IVSs, LVIDd, LVIDs, LVPWd, LVPWs, LVM, LVMI decreased. Systolic function: LV fractional shortening decreased. | No nonsignificant differences. |
| Faienza (2016) (35) | BW and/or length < p3 | 27 | 25 | 10 yr | Systolic function: TAPSE decreased in FGR. LVEF, LV and RV Tei index increased in FGR. Diastolic function: E/e′ ratio decreased in FGR. Left and right E/A ratio increased in FGR. | No nonsignificant differences. |
| Fouzas (2014) (36) | BW < p10 who suffered IUGR documented by fetal ultrasound biometry and umbilical artery Doppler | 30 | 30 | 2 days | Cardiac morphology: IVSd, LVIDd, LVPWTd, LA, RWT decreased in FGR. IVSd/LVPWd ratio increased in FGR. Systolic function: LV stroke volume, LV cardiac output, LV and RV IVCT′ increased in FGR. Mitral lateral S′, tricuspid lateral S′ decreased in FGR. Diastolic function: Mitral E′, mitral E′/A′ ratio, tricuspid E′, tricuspid A′, tricuspid E′/A′ ratio decreased in FGR. LV IVRT, RV IVRT, LV E/E′ ratio, RV E/E′ ratio increased in FGR. | Systolic function: LV fractional shortening, LVEF. Diastolic function: Mitral E wave, mitral A wave, mitral E/A ratio, tricuspid E wave, tricuspid A wave, tricuspid E/A ratio, mitral A′, tricuspid A′, tricuspid E′/A′. |
| 5 days | Cardiac morphology: IVSd, LVPWTd, LA, RWT decreased in FGR. IVSd/LVPWTd ratio increased in FGR. Systolic function: LV stroke volume, mitral lateral S′, tricuspid lateral S′ decreased in FGR. LV IVCT′ increased in FGR. Diastolic function: Mitral E′, mitral E′/A′ ratio, tricuspid E′ decreased in FGR. RV IVRT′, LV E/E′ ratio, RV E/E′ ratio increased in FGR. | Cardiac morphology: LVIDd. Systolic function: LV fractional shortening, LVEF, LV cardiac output index, RV isovolumic contraction time′. Diastolic function: Mitral E wave, mitral A wave, mitral E/A ratio, tricuspid E wave, tricuspid A wave, tricuspid E/A ratio, mitral A′, tricuspid A′, tricuspid E′/A′. | ||||
| Fouzas (2014) (37) | BW < p10 who suffered IUGR documented by fetal ultrasound biometry and umbilical artery Doppler | 25 | 25 | 2 days | Cardiac morphology: IVSd, LVPWd, RWT decreased in FGR. IVSd/LVPWd increased in FGR. Systolic function: LV ICT and RV ICT increased in FGR. Diastolic function: Mitral E′, tricuspid E′ decreased in FGR. Mitral E/E′, tricuspid E/E′, LV IRT′, RV IRT′ increased in FGR. | Cardiac morphology: LVIDd. |
| 5 days | Cardiac morphology: LVPWd, RWT decreased in FGR. IVSd/LVPWd increased in FGR. Systolic function: LV ICT′, RV ICT′ increased in FGR. Diastolic function: Mitral E′, tricuspid E′ decreased in FGR. Mitral E/E′ tricuspid E/E′, LV IRT′, RV IRT′ increased in FGR. | Cardiac morphology: LVIDd. | ||||
| Garofoli (2012) (38) | 43 | 35 | 3, 30 days | No absolute values provided. | ||
| Guajardo (1994) (39) | BW < p10 | 15 | 15 | 1 day | Systolic function: cardiac output increased in FGR. | No nonsignificant differences. |
| 5 days | No significant differences. | Systolic function: cardiac output. | ||||
| Gürses (2013) (40) | Ponderal index < 10% | 20 | 20 | 5 days | Cardiac morphology: LVPWd, LVEDd, IVSd, RVEDd, LA, LVM decreased in FGR. | Systolic function: LVEF, fractional shortening. |
| 1 mo | Cardiac morphology: LVEDd, RVEDd, LA, LVM decreased in FGR. | Cardiac morphology: LVPWd, IVSd. Systolic function: LVEF, fractional shortening. | ||||
| 3 mo | Cardiac morphology: LVM decreased in FGR. | Cardiac morphology: LVPWd, LVEDd, IVSd, RVEDd, LA. Systolic function: LVEF, fractional shortening. | ||||
| Harada (1998) (41) | BW < 2SD | 13 | 29 | 4–6 days | Diastolic function: Peak E wave, peak A wave, peak E/A wave, velocity time integral of E wave, first third filling fraction, peak filling rate normalized to stroke volume, deceleration time decreased in FGR. | Diastolic function: Velocity time integral of A wave, velocity time integral of E/A. |
| Ishii (2013) (42) | BW < p10 with a head circumference within +2SD | 30 | 57 | 3–6 h | Systolic function: LVEF, LV cardiac output decreased in FGR. | Diastolic function: E/e′. |
| 12 h | No significant differences. | Systolic function: LVEF, LV cardiac output. Diastolic function: E/e′. | ||||
| 24 h | Systolic function: LVEF, LV cardiac output decreased in FGR. | Diastolic function: E/e′. | ||||
| 48 h | Systolic function: LVEF, LV cardiac output decreased in FGR. | Diastolic function: E/e′. | ||||
| 72 h | Systolic function: LVEF, LV cardiac output decreased in FGR. | Diastolic function: E/e′. | ||||
| Ivanov (2019) (43) | BW p3–p10, > 2 SDs, symmetric | 15 | 62 | 2–5 days, 6, 12 mo | No P values of statistical tests provided. | |
| BW p3–p10, > 2 SDs, asymmetric | 47 | 62 | 2–5 days, 6, 12 mo | No P values of statistical tests provided. | ||
| Karagol (2019) (44) | BW < p10 | 55 | 200 | 1 mo | Left and right coronary artery diameters decreased in FGR. | No nonsignificant differences. |
| 6 mo | Left and right coronary artery diameters decreased in FGR. | No nonsignificant differences. | ||||
| Kumar (2019) (45) | BW < 2SDs | 35 | 35 | Day 1 | Cardiac morphology: LVIDd and LVIDs index increased in FGR. Diastolic function: TV E wave deceleration time decreased in FGR. | Systolic function: Fractional shortening, LVEF. Diastolic function: MV E, MV A, MV E/A, TV E, TV A, TV E/A, MV E wave deceleration time. |
| Day 2 | Cardiac morphology: LVIDd, LVIDs increased in FGR. Diastolic function: MV E, MV A, TV A decreased in FGR. | Systolic function: Fractional shortening, LVEF. Diastolic function: MV E/A, TV E, TV E/A, MV E wave deceleration time, TV E wave deceleration time. | ||||
| Day 3 | Cardiac morphology: LVIDd and LVIDs index increased in FGR. | Systolic function: Fractional shortening, LVEF. Diastolic function: MV E, MV A, MV E/A, TV A, TV E/A, MV E wave deceleration time, TV E wave deceleration time. | ||||
| Levent (2009) (46) | BW < p10 | 32 | 31 | 8.8 yr | No significant differences. | Cardiac morphology: LVEDd, IVSd, LVPWd, LVM, LVMI. Systolic function: LVEF, fractional shortening. |
| Mäkikallio (2016) (47) | BW < p10 and/or an UA PI > 2 SD | 60 | 52 | 1 wk | No results of statistical tests between FGR and controls shown (only over time difference provided within group). | |
| 6 mo | No results of statistical tests between FGR and controls shown (only over time difference provided within group). | |||||
| Mikkola (2007) (48) | BW < 2 SDs | 22 | 25 | 5 yr | No significant differences. | Cardiac morphology: IVSd, LVEDd, LV systolic diameter, LVPWd. Systolic function: Fractional shortening, LVEF, left ventricle stroke index, left ventricle cardiac index s. |
| Miyamoto (2013) (49) | BW < p10 | 14 | 23 | 2.8 h | Cardiac morphology: LVPWs decreased in FGR. | Cardiac morphology: LVESd, LVEDd, IVSs. Systolic function: Fractional shortening, LVEF. Diastolic function: Transmitral E, transmitral A, transmitral E/A, Ew, Aw, Ew/Aw, E/Ew. |
| Montaldo (2022) (50) | BW < p10 with FGR defined as EFW < p3 or < p10 combined with abnormal MCA, UA or uterine artery doppler arteries and/or abnormal CPR | 105 | 105 | 6 h | Systolic function: LV cardiac output decreased in FGR. | Systolic function: RV cardiac output. |
| 24 h | Systolic function: LV cardiac output decreased in FGR. | Systolic function: RV cardiac output. | ||||
| 48 h | No significant differences. | Systolic function: LV cardiac output, RV cardiac output. | ||||
| 72 h | No significant differences. | Systolic function: RV cardiac output. | ||||
| Morsing (2014) (51) | BW z-score < 2, being delivered on fetal indication by cesarean section | 32 | 32 | 7 yr | No significant differences. | Cardiac morphology: LVMI, IVSd, LVPWd, LVEDd. Systolic function: Fractional shortening, LVEF. Diastolic function: Mitral E/A ratio, mitral velocity time interval, E wave deceleration time. |
| Niewiadomska–Jarosik (2016) (52) | BW < p10 with IUGR features | 77 | 30 | 7.6 yr | Diastolic function: E wave, E/A ratio decreased in FGR. A wave, IVRT, deceleration time increased in FGR. | Cardiac morphology: LVEDd, IVSd, LVPWd. Systolic function: LVEF, fractional shortening. |
| Olander (2022) (53) | BW < 2 SD, < p3 | 23 | 48 | 5.8 yr | Diastolic function: Mitral E wave, A wave, septal E/E′ increased in FGR. Systolic function: MAPSE, TAPSE decreased in FGR. | Cardiac morphology: LV basal sphericity index, LV midpapillary sphericity index, RV base sphericity index, RV midcavity sphericity index. Diastolic function: Mitral E/A ratio, septal E′-wave peak velocity, septal E/E′ ratio. Systolic function: LVEF. |
| Olander (2020) (54) | BW < 2 SDs | 39 | 90 | 34 h (AGA), 56 h (SGA) | Cardiac morphology: IVS increased in SGA. RV midcavity dimension decreased in SGA. Diastolic function: E wave, E/E′ decreased in SGA. | Cardiac morphology: Left atrial area, LV basal dimension, LVEDd, LVPWd, LV area, LVM, LV volume, right atrial area, RV basal dimension, RV area, LV basal sphericity index, LV midcavity sphericity index, RV basal sphericity index, RV midcavity sphericity index. Systolic function: LVEF. Diastolic function: MV lateral E′ wave peak velocity. |
| Patey (2019) (55) | EFW < p10 with Doppler evidence of placental dysfunction | 33 | 54 | 0.5 days | Cardiac morphology: LVEDd decreased in FGR. RV/LVEDd ratio, IVS increased in FGR. Systolic function: RV cardiac output, IVS-S′, LV IVCT′, RV IVCT′ increased in FGR. Diastolic function: LV E/A, RV E/A, LV E′/A′, IVS E′/A′ decreased in FGR. LV IVRT′, RV IVRT′ increased in FGR. | Cardiac morphology: RVEDd. Systolic function: RV cardiac output, RV S′. Diastolic function: LV-E/E′. |
| Rodriguez–Guerineau (2018) (56) | BW < p10 | 25 | 25 | 3.5 | Cardiac morphology: LV sphericity index, LV base-to-apex length, RV sphericity index, RV base-to-apex length, IVS, LVPWT, LVM decreased in FGR. Systolic function: LV stroke volume increased in FGR. MAPSE, lateral mitral annulus s′, septal mitral annulus s′, TAPSE, tricuspid annulus IVCT′ decreased in FGR. Diastolic function: Septal mitral annulus e′, tricuspid annulus e′, tricuspid annulus IVRT′ decreased in FGR. | Cardiac morphology: LV basal diameter, RV basal diameter, RWT. Systolic function: LV cardiac output, fractional shortening, RV stroke volume, RV cardiac output, tricuspid annulus s′, septal mitral annulus IVCT′, lateral mitral annulus IVCT′, lateral mitral annulus ET′. tricuspid annulus ET′. septal mitral annulus ET′. Diastolic function: Lateral mitral annulus e′, lateral mitral annulus a′, septal mitral annulus a′, LV E/A ratio, E mitral deceleration time, tricuspid annulus a′, RV E/A ratio, E tricuspid deceleration time, lateral mitral annulus IVRT′, septal mitral annulus IVRT′. |
| Rodriguez–Lopez (2023) (57)Male | BW < p10 | 108 | 142 | 26–36 yr | Cardiac morphology: LV basal diameter increased. Systolic function: LV MAPSE decreased. | Cardiac morphology: LV base-to-apex length, LV sphericity index, LV RWT, LA area, RV basal diameter, RV base-to-apex length, RV sphericity index, RV area. Systolic function: LVEF, LV cardiac output, mitral lateral annular peak systolic velocity, LV global longitudinal strain, fractional area change, TAPSE, tricuspid annular peak systolic velocity. Diastolic function: Mitral E/A, isovolumic relaxation time, tricuspid E/A. |
| Rodriguez-Lopez (2023) (57)Female | BW < p10 | 153 | 120 | 26–36 yr | Cardiac morphology: LV basal diameter, LV base-to-apex length, RV base-to-apex length increased. Systolic function: LVEF, MAPSE, mitral lateral annular peak systolic velocity, tricuspid annular peak systolic velocity decreased. | Cardiac morphology: LV sphericity index, LV RWT, LV area, RV basal diameter, RV sphericity index, RV area. Systolic function: LV cardiac output, LV global longitudinal strain, fractional area change, TAPSE. Diastolic function: Mitral E/A, isovolumic relaxation time, tricuspid E/A. |
| Sarvari (2017) (58) | BW < p10 | 58 | 96 | 10.75 yr | Cardiac morphology: LV and RV base to apex length, LV and RV sphericity index decreased in FGR. LV basal diameter increased in FGR. Systolic function: Mitral s′, LV global longitudinal strain decreased in FGR. Diastolic function: LV IVRT, RV IVRT increased in FGR. | Cardiac morphology: RWT, RV basal diameter, left atrial area, right atrial area. Systolic function: LV cardiac output, LVEF, tricuspid s′. Diastolic function: Mitral e′, tricuspid E/A ratio, tricuspid e′. |
| Sehgal (2018) (59) | BW or EFW < p10 | 20 | 20 | 10.4 days | No results of statistical tests between FGR and controls shown (only correlations between arterial mechanics and cardiac function parameters). | |
| Sehgal (2017) (60) | BW < p10 | 20 | 20 | 10.4 days | Systolic function: MAPSE decreased in FGR. Diastolic function: E wave, A wave, TDI mitral E′, TDI mitral A′ decreased in FGR. E/A ratio, TDI E′/A′, E/E′ increased in FGR. | Cardiac morphology: RWT. Systolic function: Fractional shortening. Diastolic function: TDI E′/A′ |
| Sehgal (2013) (61) | BW < p3 | 20 | 20 | 76.5 h | Systolic function: Fractional shortening, LV cardiac output index decreased in SGA. Diastolic function: E wave, A wave, IVRT increased in SGA. E/A ratio, E deceleration time, IVRT increased in FGR. | No nonsignificant differences. |
| Sehgal (2013) (14) | BW < p3 | 20 | 20 | 76.5 h | Systolic function: Left ventricular global longitudinal strain, basal septal strain, basal septal SR, middle septal SR, apical septal strain, apical septal SR, basal lateral strain, basal lateral SR, middle lateral strain, middle lateral SR, apical lateral strain, apical lateral SR decreased in SGA. | No nonsignificant differences. |
| Sehgal (2022) (62) | BW < p10 with absent/reversed antenatal umbilical artery Doppler | 28 | 26 | 10.1 days | Cardiac morphology: LVEDd, LVPWd, LVM increased in FGR. Diastolic function: Transmitral E/A increased in FGR. | Systolic function: Fractional shortening, LV cardiac output. |
| Suciu (2022) (63) | EFW < p10 | 18 | 18 | 1 day | Systolic function: RV cardiac output, TAPSE decreased in SGA. LVEF increased in SGA. Diastolic function: Tricuspid E/A decreased, mitral E, mitral A in SGA. IVRT increased in SGA. | Systolic function: Fractional shortening, LVEF, LV cardiac output. Diastolic function: Tricuspid E, tricuspid A. |
| 2 days | Systolic function: RV cardiac output, TAPSE decreased in SGA. LVEF increased in SGA. Diastolic function: Tricuspid E/A decreased, mitral E, mitral A in SGA. IVRT increased in SGA. | Systolic function: Fractional shortening, LVEF, LV cardiac output. Diastolic function: Tricuspid E, tricuspid A. | ||||
| Vats (2021) (64) | BW < p10 | 100 | 100 | 53 h | Cardiac morphology: IVSs decreased in SGA. Systolic function: LV ET and RV ET decreased in SGA. RV IVCT increased in SGA. Diastolic function: RV IVRT increased in SGA. | Cardiac morphology: IVSd, LVIDd, LVIDs, LVPWd, LVPWs. Systolic function: LV IVCT. Diastolic function: E wave, A wave, E/A ratio, LV IVRT. |
| Verma (2023) (65) | BW < p3, or BW < p10 with FGR defined plus abnormal Doppler | 24 | 30 | 24–48 h | Systolic function: TAPSE decreased in FGR. | Systolic function: Fractional shortening, LVEF, LV output, RV output. |
| 48 h | Systolic function: Fractional shortening, LV EF, TAPSE, RV cardiac output decreased in FGR. | Systolic function: LV output. | ||||
| Yiallourou (2017) (66) | EFW < p10 plus absent or reversed EDF of UA | 18 | 15 | 9 yr | No significant differences. | Cardiac morphology: LVIDd, LVIDs, LVPWd, sphericity index, RWT, left atrium. Systolic function: Stroke volume, cardiac output, LVEF, fractional shortening. Diastolic function: Mitral E wave velocity, mitral A wave velocity, mitral E/A ratio, left IVRT. |
| Zaharie (2019) (67) | EFW < p10 abnormal Doppler of the UA or/and MCA | 40 | 21 | 1 and 6 mo | No results of statistical tests between FGR and controls shown (only over time difference provided within FGR group). |
A, diastolic late peak velocity; AGA, appropriate for gestational age; BW, birth weight; MCA, middle cerebral artery; con, control; E, diastolic early peak velocity; EDL, end-diastolic length; EF, ejection fraction; EFW, estimated fetal weight; Em, early myocardial peak velocity; ET, ejection time; FGR, fetal growth restriction; GA, gestational age; IVCT, isovolumetric contraction time; IVS, interventricular septum thickness; IVRT, isovolumetric relaxation time; LV, left ventricle; LVEDd, left ventricular end-diastolic diameter; LVEDs, left ventricular end-systolic diameter; LVEDdI, left ventricular end-diastolic diameter index; LVIDd, left ventricle internal diameter during diastole; LVIDs, left ventricle internal diameter during systole; LVM, left ventricular mass; LVMI, left ventricular mass index; LVPWd, left ventricular posterior wall thickness at end diastole; LVPWs, left ventricular posterior wall thickness at end systole; MAPSE, mitral annular plane systolic excursion; MV, mitral valve; p, percentile; RV, right ventricle; RVEDd, right ventricular end-diastolic diameter; RWT, relative wall thickness; SGA, small for gestational age; SL, strain longitudinal; TAPSE, tricuspid annular plane systolic excursion; TDI, tissue doppler imaging; UA, umbilical artery; VL, velocity longitudinal.