Table 2.
Summary of firearm legislation organized by country and by legislation type.
| Law | Year | Summary |
|---|---|---|
| Australia | ||
| The National Firearms Agreement (NFA) | 1996 | An agreement restricting access to some classes of firearms, regularizing, and tightening state-level licensing laws, and introducing a gun buyback scheme in response to the Port Arthur massacre. Some studies didn’t find an association between the NFA and homicide and suicide, while other studies noted a decrease in rates of homicide and suicide[20], [21], [22], [23], [23], [24], [25], [26], [27], [28], [29]. |
| National Suicide Prevention Strategy (NSPS) | 1999 | The Australian Government took a nationally coordinated approach to suicide prevention by adopting a whole-of-community approach to suicide prevention to enhance public understanding of suicide and its causes. One study evaluated the NSPS policy impacts on youth suicide and found no support to suggest significant impacts on rand educing youth suicides in Australia[30]. |
| The Weapons Act | 1990 | The Weapons Act requires owners of long arms (rifles and shotguns) to be licensed. One study evaluated the effect of the Weapons Act on firearm suicide rates and noted a reduction in suicide rates, however it is difficult to assess whether the Act was the reason for this decrease[114] |
| Canada | ||
| Bill C-17 | 1991 | Bill C-17 enforced stricter restrictions for firearm purchases (e.g., mandatory waiting periods, screening checks, photographs, personal references) and increased penalties for firearm-related crimes. Overall, studies noted a decrease in homicide and suicide rates following the implementation of Bill C-17, however reduction of firearm suicides was not accompanied by a decrease in overall suicide rates[31], [32], [32], [33], [34], [35], [36], [37], [38], [39], [40], [41], [42]. |
| Bill C-51 | 1977 | Bill C-51 included requirements for Firearms Acquisition Certificates and Firearms and Ammunition Business Permits. Other changes included search and seizure powers, increased penalties, and new definitions for prohibited and restricted weapons. Overall, studies noted a decrease in rates of firearm-related homicide and suicide following Bill C-51 [31], [32], [32], [33], [34], [35], [36], [37], [38], [39], [40], [41], [42] |
| Bill C-68 | 1995 | Bill C-68 included Criminal Code amendments to enact harsher penalties for serious firearm crimes, the creation of the Firearms Act, a new licensing system, and registration of all firearms, including shotguns and rifles. One study evaluated whether Bill C-68 had a significant impact on female firearm homicide victimization and found that the highest rate of firearm homicide happened among males[31], [32], [32], [33], [34], [35], [36], [37], [38], [39], [40], [41], [42] |
| Gunshot Wounds Reporting Act | 2007 | Nova Scotia act that mandated the reporting of all gunshot wounds by any hospital, facility or individual that treats the victim[25]. |
| USA | ||
| Indiana Gun Removal Law | 2006 | The Indiana Gun Removal Law was enacted to prevent firearm mortality by authorizing police officers to separate firearms from individuals who present imminent or future of injury to self or others. These studies suggested that removal laws were associated with decreases in firearm suicide and homicide[43], [44]. |
| California Ban | 2012 | Since 1967, it has been illegal to openly carry a loaded firearm in public except when engaged in hunting or law enforcement in California, however in 2012, public open carry of unloaded guns became illegal. One study evaluated the effect of the ban on fatal and non-fatal firearm injuries and noted a decrease in homicide rates however, when comparing between-group differences, the rate of change was not statistically different. In comparing California with the controls, there was a statistically significant difference in suicide attempts, with a slight fall in the control states compared with essentially no change in California[45]. |
| National Defense Authorization Act | 2013 | The National Defense Authorization Act allows commanders and clinicians to ask service members about personal firearms and encourage the use of gun locks. One study noted mixed results in that firearms were not used less in suicide attempts within the military post-law change, however, the ratio of non-lethal to lethal suicide attempts increased[46]. |
| Arizona Senate Bill 1108 | 2010 | Bill 1108 modified the existing statutes and permits individuals to carry concealed weapons without a permit and without completion of a training course. One study assessed whether the enactment of Bill 1108 resulted in an increase in gun-related injuries and death, and following the bill, the proportion of gun-related homicides increased by 27 %[47]. |
| Background checks | 1993a | Background checks have been implemented to limit firearm ownership among individuals who would be considered at an elevated risk of violence. Currently, 22 states and the District of Columbia have implemented a policy for background checks for the sale and purchase of firearms. 10 studies evaluated the impact of background check policies on firearm homicides and suicides and all studies noted a reduction in firearm homicide and suicide, especially states with more comprehensive background checks[48], [49], [50], [51], [52], [53], [54], [55], [56], [57], [58]. |
| The Brady Handfirearm mortality Prevention Act | 1993 | The Brady Hand firearm mortality Prevention Act mandates federal background checks and waiting periods for the purchase of handguns from federally licensed firearm dealers. One study evaluated the impact of the Brady Bill on homicide and suicide rates and did not find any statistically significant changes in homicide or suicide measures when comparing control states with partial treatment states[59], [60]. |
| Child Access Prevention Laws | 1989b | Child access prevention (CAP) laws are state-level laws that govern how firearms are stored in households with minors. Six studies looked at CAP laws and their effect on youth suicide and firearm fatalities and found that states with CAP laws had lower youth suicide rates, however some studies noted an increased risk of adolescent suicide associated with household firearm ownership[61], [62], [63], [64], [65], [66], [67]. |
| Comprehensive Anti-Gang Initiative | 2006 | The U.S Department of Justice through the Project Safe Neighborhoods program provided funding to develop an anti-gang initiative to reduce and prevent firearm mortality. One study evaluated the initiative’s impact on gang related firearm mortality and found that cities that implemented the initiative experienced a significant decline in firearm homicide rates post-intervention[68]. |
| Concealed carry laws | 2008 | Concealed carry laws permit civilians to carry a firearm in a concealed manner. Every state in the US allows for concealed carry of a handgun either with or without a permit, however how these permits are obtained vary by jurisdiction. There were many studies that looked at how concealed carry or right-to-carry laws impacted homicide and suicide in multiple states and the conclusions vary[45], [47], [69], [70], [71], [72], [73], [74], [75], [76], [77], [78], [79], [80], [81], [82]. |
| Detroit Gun Ordinance | 1986 | The Detroit City Council enacted an ordinance that created mandatory jail sentence on any individual convicted of illegally concealing a pistol or firearm in the city. An interrupted time-series study noted that the incidence of homicide increased in general after the law was passed and changes in the incidence of firearm homicides was not statistically significant[69]. |
| District of Columbia's Firearms Control Regulations Act | 1976 | The District of Columbia’s Firearms Control Regulations Act restricts the possession of firearms to individuals who hold registration certificates and bans the purchase, sale, transfer, or possession of handguns by civilians[6], [8]. One study noted that the mean frequency of both suicides and homicides by firearms declined by approximately one-quarter in the period following the enactment of the law[83]. |
| Domestic Violence Restraining Orders (DVRO) | 1968 | In response to an increase in firearm use in intimate partner homicide, state and federal laws have been enacted to prohibit the purchase and possession of firearms for those who are subject to an active domestic violence restraining order or convicted of a misdemeanor crime of domestic violence. Two studies evaluated the impact of intimate partner violence-related firearm restrictive laws on intimate partner homicide. One study found that state level restriction laws are associated with reduction in intimate partner violence among the White population, however this relationship is unclear in among the Black population due to confounding variables[84], while the others found these laws were associated with substantial reductions in homicide of pregnant and postpartum women, especially when coupled with relinquishment law[85]. |
| Federal Assault Weapons Ban | 1994 | The Federal Assault Weapons Ban is a U.S federal law that prohibits the manufacture for civilian use certain semi-automatic firearms (assault weapons) and certain ammunition magazines defined as large capacity. Three studies evaluated the impact of the Federal Assault Weapon ban on mass-shootings in the U.S and all three noted a statistically significant reduction in mass-shooting related homicides during the years the federal ban was in place[86], [87], [88]. |
| Federal Gun Control Act | 1968 | The Gun Control Act prohibits groups (e.g., minors, felons) from possessing or purchasing firearms. One study evaluated the impact of the Federal Gun Control Act of domestic homicides and found that intimate partner gun homicide rate was significantly reduced[89]. |
| Extreme risk protection orders (“red flag” laws) and gun-seizure laws | 1999c | Extreme risk protection orders, also known as firearm mortality restraining orders or “red flag” laws, have been enacted to allow law enforcement and/or families to petition a judge for a removal of firearms from an individual who is deemed a danger to themselves or others. Four studies evaluated the association of state laws with the incidence of firearm-related suicides and three studies found that seizure laws resulted in a decrease in firearm-related suicide and homicide, however, one study noted that firearm removal at the scene of intimate partner violence appeared to increase the likelihood of subsequent intimate violent partner reports[90], [91], [92], [93] |
| Involuntary civil comment statute provisions | 1970 s | Involuntary civil comment (ICC) statutes are the involuntary admission of individuals into mental health care. One study sought to assess whether statutes based solely upon dangerousness criteria versus broad criteria have differential associations related to reducing homicide. The study found that broader ICC criteria were associated with 1.42 less homicides per 100,000 and dangerousness criteria has the strongest association with state homicide rates[94]. |
| Graves Amendment | 1981 | New Jersey's minimum sentencing law mandates a minimum sentence of imprisonment without parole for an individual convicted of a crime. One study examined the percentage of homicides before and after the enactment of the Graves Amendment and noted a decrease in the proportion of homicides[95] |
| Permit to purchase | 1968 | Permit to purchase laws are put in place as a requirement for prospective handgun purchasers to obtain a permit or license prior to purchasing a handgun. This includes a background check, and in some states, a firearm safety training course. Seven studies examined the effects of permit to purchase laws on rates of homicide and suicide and varied in their conclusions. Two studies found no relationship between permit to purchase laws and homicide, one study noted an increase, while the remaining four observed a decrease[96], [97], [98], [99], [100], [101], [102], [103], [104], [82] |
| Saturday Night Special Handgun ban | 1987 | Maryland enacted laws that limited the sales of “Saturday Night Specials, or small handguns. Two studies assessed firearm fatalities following the introduction of the handgun ban, one study noted an overall increase in firearm fatalities in children under 16 and another study modeled the effects of the law and noted a predicted 15 % increase in firearm homicides[101], [105], [106], [107] |
| Stand Your Ground laws | 1994 | Stand Your Ground laws were enacted to provide individuals the option to use deadly force in self-defence so long as they reasonably believe it to be necessary to defend themselves against violent crimes. There were several studies that examined the impact of Stand Your Ground laws on rates of homicide and found an increase in firearm related homicide[96], [108], [109], [110], [111], [112], [113], [114], [115], [116], [117] |
| Waiting period laws | 1994 | Handgun waiting period laws are in place to force a delay between the initiation of the purchase of a handgun and the final acquisition of a firearm, to provide law enforcement with additional time to perform background checks and to prevent acts of violence or suicide attempts. Results were varied with most demonstrating a decrease, either on its own or part of a multi-law study[51], [97], [118], [119], [120], [121], [122], [123], [124], [125], [126], [127], [128], [129], [130], [131], [132]. Two studies, however, noted an increase in firearm-related suicide when Wisconsin repealed the 48-hour waiting period for handgun purchases in 2015[121], [119]. |
| Other countries | ||
| Austria − Legislation reform | 1997 | The Austrian firearms law was enacted following the European Council Directive 91/477/EEC and imposed more strict changes on the acquisition and possession of firearms. Two studies evaluated the impact of the Austrian legislation reform on suicide and homicide rates and both studies concluded an overall decrease in firearm suicide and homicide rates[133], [134]. |
| Colombia − Firearm carry laws | 1993d | In the early 90 s, Columbia enacted laws to set standards and requirements regarding the possession and carrying of firearms, ammunition, explosives, and accessories. Two studies evaluated the effect of firearm restriction on carrying guns on gun-related homicides in Columbia and both studies noted a decrease in firearm-related homicides when the restrictions were in place[135], [136]. |
| Denmark − Firearms Act | 1986 | The Firearms act took effect and implemented stricter laws including requiring licensing for shotguns. One study examined the effect of Danish legislation on homicide and suicide rates and noted that the number of suicides and homicides both decreased following the introduction of the new law, however this decrease could not be attributed to the effect of the law because the number of fatal shotgun cases was similar. The authors noted that it might have been more preventive[137]. |
| Israel − Military policy | 2006 | In 2006, the Israeli Defense Force (IDF) changed their policy as part of a suicide prevention program to mandate that soldiers must leave their weapons at their bases when heading home for weekend leave. One study assessed the effect of reduced firearm access on suicide and found a 40 % decline in the number of suicide after the policy change when reducing access to firearms during the weekend[138]. |
| Montenegro − Montenegrin Law | 2007 | A new law in Montenegro enforced that firearms are only permitted in homes or bought from individuals who have expressed written permission from the police. A time-trend analysis evaluated the effects of this new law comparing firearm and knife homicides and found a significant decrease in firearm homicides but saw an increase in homicides committed with a knife[139]. |
| New Zealand − Amendment to the Arms Act | 1992 | The Amendment to the Arms Act changed regulations surrounding access to firearms from liberal to more restrictive, including licensing, knowledge of the Firearms Code test, and assessment by police as “fit” to hold a firearms license. One study examined the impact of introducing more restrictive legislation and found that the mean annual rate of firearm related suicides decreased by 46 % for the total population[140]. |
| South Africa − Firearms Control Act | 2000 | The Firearms Control Act aimed to address firearm violence by removing illegally owned firearms from circulation, stricter regulation of legally owned firearms, and stricter firearm licensing requirements. One time-trend analysis found that firearm homicide increased at 13 % annually from 1994 through 2000, and decreased by 15 % from 2003 through 2006, corresponding with changes in firearm availability in 2001, 2003, 2007 and 2011[141]. |
| Switzerland − Army XXI Reform | 2003 | The Army XXI Reform was enacted to reduce military troops by discharging military personnel early, impacting the availability of military guns, as well as increasing the fee for solider to purchase their military gun following their service and licensing requirements for gun owners. One study assessed the patterns of overall suicide and homicide rates following the reform and found an overall reduction in both overall suicide rate and firearm suicide rate. The authors estimated 22 % of reduction in firearm suicide rate was substitute by other suicide methods[142]. |
a
– following enactment of the Brady Act.
b
– first Child Access Prevention (CAP) law was passed in Florida, US.
c
– First Extreme Risk Protection Order (ERPO) was passed in Connecticut, US.
d
– DESEPAZ − Development, Security, and Peace Program.