Evidence of the digital nomad phenomenon: From "Reinventing" migration theory to destination countries readiness

Abstract

Background

This research focuses on identifying the characteristics of the digital nomad phenomenon, which is growing increasingly prevalent today. This study aims to bridge the gap between the findings of the digital nomad data analysis (from the direction of movement, responses, and sentiment of society) and the existing migration theories.

Method

Using qualitative method, this study employs a qualitative analysis performed with the Social Network Analysis (SNA) to calculate the betweness centrality of 1394 tweets gathered between April and October 2019 from the X, when this phenomenon was a top concern on numerous platforms. The analysis has been rendered by using software tools like NodeXL and Gephi.

Results

The analysis of the #digitalnomad conversation network reveals several key findings: influential users, identified through betweenness centrality, significantly shape the discourse, with @thenomadeconomy, @socialhackettes, @francismarkme, @tdg_bnb, and @ryanbiddulph emerging as primary opinion leaders. Migration patterns show a predominant flow from "Global North" to "Global South" countries, with popular destinations including Bali, Phuket, and Madrid, contrasting with traditional migration theories emphasizing south-to-north movement. Sentiment analysis indicates a predominantly positive attitude towards digital nomadism, with 1662 positive mentions compared to 383 negative ones. These insights underscore the evolving nature of digital nomadism and highlight the significant influence of social media in driving migration trends and shaping perceptions.

Conclusion

this study utilizing Social Network Analysis (SNA) identifies influential users shaping the discourse around the digital nomad phenomenon, revealing migration patterns from "Global North" to "Global South" countries contrary to traditional theories. The sentiment analysis reflects a predominantly positive attitude towards digital nomadism, underscoring the significant influence of social media in driving migration trends and shaping perceptions.

1. Introduction

In recent years, international migration has experienced a significant upsurge, evolving into a pervasive global phenomenon with profound implications for societies worldwide. According to the latest statistics provided by the International Organization for Migration (IOM), the global migrant population soared to an estimated 281 million individuals in 2021 [1]. This figure represents a noteworthy 3.5 percent increase from the previous year, highlighting the sustained momentum of migration on a global scale. Within this vast migrant population, labor migrants (162 million in 2021) and refugees (26.4 million in 2020) emerge as substantial segments, each contributing uniquely to the complex landscape of international migration [2]. Labor migrants, driven by economic opportunities, play a pivotal role in global remittance flows, which reached a staggering $800 billion in 2022, facilitating economic development and livelihood support in their countries of origin [3]. Conversely, refugees, fleeing conflict, persecution, and other forms of adversity, seek sanctuary and protection in host nations, shaping geopolitical dynamics and humanitarian responses worldwide, showing an increase trends in 2023 [4]. As international migration continues to rise unabated, it underscores the critical need for a nuanced understanding of its multifaceted drivers and far-reaching impacts across diverse societies and regions.

Beyond economics and conflicts, international migration is driven by another complex interplay of factors. Geopolitical instability, with over 100 million forcibly displaced globally according to the UNHCR, compels people to seek safety [5]. Social injustices and environmental disasters, like the 40 million internally displaced by weather events in 2022 reported by the Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre (IDMC), exacerbate migration as people flee violence, persecution, and unsustainable environments [6]. Moreover, globally estimated at 35 million by MBO Partners, digital nomadism is thriving, with approximately 17.3 million American workers embracing this lifestyle, showing a 2 percent uptick from 2022. This growth represents a staggering 131 percent surge from the pre-pandemic year 2019–2022 [7]. That fact potentially reshapes migration patterns with technology enabling location-independent work for lifestyle seekers. This complexity challenges traditional economic-focused views, demanding nuanced policy responses that address the multifaceted needs of migrants in our interconnected world.

The rapid emergence of digital nomadism challenges conventional notions of work and mobility by enabling individuals to work remotely and lead location-independent lifestyles, representing a paradigm shift in global migration trends. This phenomenon, facilitated by technological advancements and globalization, grants digital nomads unprecedented flexibility in choosing their workplaces and destinations, transcending traditional office settings and geographical constraints [8]. Embracing a nomadic lifestyle, these individuals prioritize experiences and personal fulfillment, fostering a vibrant community united by independence and exploration. However, as digital nomadism grows, it poses unique challenges for policymakers and scholars, necessitating a reevaluation of traditional migration theories to accommodate its multifaceted dynamics [9]. Despite these complexities, digital nomadism represents not only a revolution in work and migration but also a reflection of broader global forces, offering new pathways towards a more flexible, inclusive, and interconnected future [10].

Despite the burgeoning significance of digital nomadism, substantial lacunae persist in our comprehension of its repercussions on traditional migration paradigms and the preparedness of destination nations to accommodate this burgeoning demographic. The conventional North-South migration framework, underpinned by neo-classical economic models, may necessitate reassessment given the disruptive ramifications of digital nomadism on labor markets and spatial inequalities [11]. Furthermore, while certain destination countries have begun to acknowledge the prospective economic dividends of attracting digital nomads, the absence of comprehensive policies and bespoke visa regimes tailored to this distinct migrant cohort underscores a critical deficiency [12]. Consequently, there exists an exigent imperative for scholarly inquiry to traverse these epistemic lacunae and furnish empirical insights conducive to evidence-based policymaking in the domain of migration governance.

This research endeavors to delve into the evolving landscape of international migration by examining the relevance of classic migration theories, particularly focusing on the North-South framework, within the context of the emerging trend of digital nomadism. With the global migrant population estimated to have reached 281 million in 2021, a significant increase from the previous year, understanding the dynamics of migration has become increasingly crucial [13]. Among these migrants, labor migrants and refugees play significant roles, contributing to global remittance flows and seeking refuge from various conflicts and persecutions. However, alongside these traditional migration patterns, digital nomadism has rapidly emerged as a transformative phenomenon, challenging conventional notions of work and mobility by enabling individuals to work remotely and lead location-independent lifestyles [14]. Leveraging real-time data from platforms like X, this study aims to elucidate how digital nomadism influences migration motivations and dynamics, particularly in economic terms, while also assessing destination countries' attitudes and preparedness for accommodating this new demographic.

Furthermore, this research holds significant implications for informing migration policy formulation in an era increasingly shaped by digital nomadism. By comprehensively understanding the motivations and preferences of digital nomads and evaluating destination countries' readiness to accommodate them, policymakers can develop more tailored visa regimes and regulatory frameworks. These policies would be essential for harnessing the potential economic benefits of digital nomadism while effectively addressing any associated social or economic challenges. Hence, this study aims to contribute to the development of migration policies that are responsive to the evolving dynamics of global mobility in the digital age.

Moreover, amidst the growing prominence of digital nomadism, significant gaps persist in our understanding of its implications for traditional migration theories and destination countries' readiness to accommodate this new demographic. While the North-South migration framework has historically provided insights into labor market dynamics and wage differentials, its applicability in the context of digital nomadism is uncertain. The evolving nature of remote work and the emergence of location-independent lifestyles challenge conventional understandings of migration patterns and motivations. Additionally, destination countries may lack comprehensive strategies to accommodate digital nomads, potentially missing out on opportunities for economic growth and cultural exchange. To address these gaps, employing Social Network Analysis (SNA) offers a promising avenue for understanding the digital nomad phenomenon in-depth. By analyzing the social connections, interactions, and sentiments of digital nomads on platforms like X, SNA can uncover hidden patterns and structures within their migratory behavior, providing valuable insights for policymakers and researchers alike.

2. Literature review

2.1. Rethinking migration in a mobile world

Migration studies have long depicted a narrative of one-way migration flows from the Global South to the prosperous Global North, largely driven by economic disparities [15]. The term "Global South" typically encompasses developing countries located in regions such as Latin America, Asia, Africa, and Oceania. These nations are often referred to as the "third world" due to their lower Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita compared to the global average. In contrast, the "Global North" comprises wealthier countries predominantly located in Europe, North America, and Australia, characterized by significantly higher GDP per capita figures than the world average [16]. Recent data indicates a multifaceted reality, expanding migration motives beyond economics to include security, climate change, technology, and digital transition. Moreover, significant migration movements within the Global South challenge traditional dichotomies [17]. The World Bank's projections indicate that by 2030, the collective GDP of developing economies in the Global South is expected to reach a staggering US$61.7 trillion, marking a substantial economic growth trajectory [17]. This growth has not only fostered intraregional migration but also spurred labor mobility within these regions [18]. In contrast to the traditional South-North migration narrative, a significant proportion of international migration now takes place within the Global South, surpassing the volume of South-North migration since 2020 [19]. This phenomenon, as elucidated by scholars such as Adela Pellegrino and Cristina Jóia, is propelled by economic advancements in the southern regions, which sometimes outpace those in the north region, as happened between Argentina and Uruguay [20]. Additionally, it stems from the more direct access to international protection for refugees fleeing regional conflicts. For example, India's thriving tech industry has attracted skilled workers from neighboring countries, while conflicts like the Syrian crisis have displaced millions within the region [21].

Moreover, the evolving landscape of migration is characterized by a complex interplay of factors beyond economic considerations. Jorgen (2017) on the role of lifestyle aspirations in migration decisions underscores the multifaceted nature of contemporary migration dynamics. Aspirations for a better lifestyle, encompassing factors such as work-life balance and access to cultural experiences, have become increasingly influential in migration decisions [22]. Additionally, Peggy Levitt's work (2017) highlights the concept of "transnational migration," where migrants maintain strong social and economic ties with their home countries. These trends challenge traditional migration frameworks that predominantly focus on economic factors and permanent relocation patterns [23]. Furthermore, the emergence of digital infrastructure, including high-speed internet and remote work tools, further complicates the migration landscape, empowering individuals in developing countries to access opportunities globally and influencing migration decisions in unforeseen ways [24].

2.2. “Uncaptured” phenomenon by the traditional migration theories

Existing migration theories, such as functionalist and historical-structural theories, which deeply rooted in the socioeconomic dynamics of different regions, face considerable challenges when confronted with the complexities inherent in digital nomadism, a burgeoning trend characterized by unconventional work arrangements and transient lifestyles [25]. While traditional theories, notably those advanced by Ravenstein and Lee, have provided valuable insights into migration patterns driven by economic disparities and labor market dynamics [26], they fall short in comprehensively explaining the multifaceted nature of digital nomadism. This contemporary phenomenon, marked by remote work flexibility, short-term residencies across diverse locations, and the possession of specialized skill sets, presents a departure from conventional migration paradigms [27]. However, the scarcity of detailed data on digital nomads poses a significant impediment to our understanding of their socioeconomic impacts on host communities and broader migration trends.

Furthermore, the traditional migration theory framework, which has historically relied on economic models to interpret migration patterns, is ill-equipped to address the intricacies of digital nomadism in the modern era [28]. While economic factors undoubtedly play a role in migration decisions, the emergence of digital nomadism underscores the need for a more nuanced approach that considers the evolving nature of work and mobility. Scholars and policymakers alike are increasingly recognizing the need for theoretical frameworks that can better capture the diverse motivations and behaviors of digital nomads, thereby informing more effective policy interventions and strategic initiatives. Recent research endeavors have sought to delve deeper into the phenomenon of digital nomadism, exploring its various dimensions and implications for contemporary society. For instance, studies by renowned scholars have delved into the motivations, challenges, and lifestyle preferences of digital nomads, shedding light on the factors driving their mobility patterns and work arrangements [29]. Additionally, research conducted by Miguel Pina e Cunha and Arménio Rego has examined the organizational dynamics of remote work, uncovering its impacts on employee engagement, productivity, and well-being [30]. Given the diverse array of insights emerging from interdisciplinary research fields such as sociology, geography, and organizational behavior, there is growing recognition of the need to develop more nuanced theoretical frameworks that can better account for the complexities of digital nomadism. This phenomenon necessitates a reevaluation of existing migration frameworks to accommodate its unique characteristics.

2.3. Between theory and phenomenon: the needs of evidence

Innovative research methods, such as big data analytics and qualitative studies with digital nomads, offer avenues to gain insights into this phenomenon. These approaches can provide a more comprehensive understanding of digital nomadism and its implications for migration patterns. Big data analytics, fueled by the proliferation of digital platforms and online tools, offers unprecedented opportunities to study migration patterns and behaviors. In recent years, there has been a notable surge in academic interest surrounding the phenomenon of digital nomadism, particularly in the context of the internet and remote work. Scholars such as Hermann and Paris have conducted extensive research exploring the motivations, lifestyles, and work arrangements of digital nomads, shedding light on the factors driving their migration patterns and preferences. Their studies have highlighted the role of digital technologies and online platforms in facilitating remote work and enabling location-independent lifestyles, underscoring the transformative impact of the internet on contemporary migration dynamics [31]. Moreover, research by Zhou and colleagues has examined the economic contributions of digital nomads to local economies, exploring how their spending patterns and consumption behaviors influence host communities [32]. Their findings have emphasized the potential for digital nomadism to stimulate economic growth and foster entrepreneurial activity in destination countries, thereby challenging traditional notions of labor mobility and economic development.

Additionally, studies by Thompson have investigated the psychological and social implications of digital nomadism, exploring the effects of remote work on mental health, social connectedness, and well-being. Their research has highlighted the importance of community-building initiatives and support networks for digital nomads, particularly in mitigating feelings of isolation and fostering a sense of belonging in transient environments [33]. The burgeoning field of research on digital nomadism underscores the need for innovative methodologies and interdisciplinary approaches to understanding this complex phenomenon. By leveraging both quantitative and qualitative methods, researchers can gain a more nuanced understanding of digital nomadism and its broader implications for migration patterns, economic development, and social cohesion in an increasingly digitalized world.

2.4. The needs for the further exploration

Digital nomadism challenges traditional migration theories and calls for new conceptual frameworks. Concepts like location independence and the "laptop lifestyle" highlight the role of technology in shaping modern migration patterns. Furthermore, recent scholarship on transnational migration provides a useful foundation for understanding digital nomadism. The concept of maintaining social and economic ties with home countries resonates with the experiences of digital nomads, who often leverage online platforms to collaborate with international clients and maintain connections with family and friends. However, the digital nomad phenomenon also compels us to consider new theoretical frameworks. Concepts like location independence and the "laptop lifestyle" warrant further exploration. These frameworks highlight the role of technology in enabling a new category of mobile worker who can generate income from anywhere in the world, which needs to be addresed by understanding its characteristiscs.

3. Methodology

The qualitative approach used in this research as the main perspective, whereas Qualitative research is defined as an iterative process in which the scientific community gains a better knowledge of the subject being examined by making new meaningful distinctions [34]. The qualitative analysis in this research, as relevant with the meaning of qualitative method itself, is conducted by using the Social Network Analysis (SNA) to gain the better knowledge of a phenomenon, which is the digital nomad. SNA applications constitute a distinct collection of approaches for mapping, measuring, and analyzing social relationships between people, teams, and organizations [35]. As outlined in Fig. 1, in SNA, nodes represent individual entities, edges depict connections or relationships between nodes (can be directed or undirected), and metrics like betweenness centrality quantify network properties and identify influential actors.

Fig. 1.

Illustration of the SNA method.

Source: Author

In the context of studying digital nomadism, SNA can be applied to understand the connections and interactions between digital nomads, as well as between digital nomads and other relevant actors such as remote employers, co-working spaces, and destination countries. Furthermore, one important metric in SNA is betweenness centrality, which quantifies the extent to which a particular node (or actor) lies on the shortest paths between other nodes in the network. In other words, nodes with high betweenness centrality act as bridges or intermediaries between different parts of the network, facilitating the flow of information or resources [35]. The formula to calculate betweenness centrality for a node v is as follows:

$$C_B(v)=\sum _{s\ne v\ne t}\frac{{\sigma }_{st}(v)}{{\sigma }_{st}}$$

Where:

${\sigma }_{st}$ is the total number of shortest paths from node $s$ to node t

${\sigma }_{st}(v)$ is the number of shortest paths from node $s$ to node $t$ that pass through node $v$.

Essentially, betweenness centrality measures the degree to which a node lies on the shortest paths between other nodes in the network. Nodes with high betweenness centrality are influential in controlling the flow of information or resources within the network, and their removal could potentially disrupt communication or collaboration between other nodes. In the context of studying digital nomadism, betweenness centrality could be used to identify influential digital nomads who play key roles in connecting different parts of the digital nomad community or in facilitating collaboration and knowledge sharing within the network. By analyzing betweenness centrality scores across different nodes in the network, researchers can gain insights into the structure and dynamics of the digital nomad community, as well as the patterns of interaction and information flow within this networked environment.

3.1. Data

The Data which is used in this research is obtained from the Twitter platform from April to October 2019, contains of 1394 tweets or post, from the worldwide. This timeframe was chosen because Estonia adopted the first regulated digital nomad, in the form of a nomadism visa, in December 2018, and starting in January 2019, other nations will follow what Estonia is doing to control the digital nomad [9]. Furthermore, the data is acquired by utilizing a certain hashtag as shown in Table .1, which is a type of categorized term used to categorize the conversation and display the relevant component of the message in a conversation network [36]. The hashtag which used to gather the data are.

Table 1.

Used hashtag for data gathering purposes.

Hashtag	Counted Tweets
#digitalnomad	1878
#travel	376
#remotework	351

Source: Data Analysis

The data which Twitter account has, is each "replies-to" relationship in a tweet has an edge, as does each "mention" relationship, and each tweet that is not a "replies-to" or "mention" has a self-loop edge. These relationships are forming the discussion network, which may be defined as a network of numerous people working on a certain issue in order to influence public opinion [37]. The Dataset used in this research is arranged by using the data mining procedures, which introduced by Rob Kitchin (2014), and performed in NodeXL tools.Furthermore, the detailed procedures to arrange the data is shown in Table 2.

Table 2.

Dataset arrangement procedures.

Data Mining Task	Description	Techniques
Segmentation or Clustering	The groupings that characterize the data are clustered.	•Cluster Analysis •Bayesian Classification
Data Classification	Insert the labels into the dataset.	•Artificial Neural Networks •Support Vector Machines
Data Association	Analyzing user relationships and discussion clusters	•Association Rules •Beyesian Networks
Data Deviations	Wrapping up the components in order to comprehend the information spread	•Cluster Analysis •Outlier detection •Evolution Analysis
Trends Analysis	Lines and curves that summarize the database, frequently over time	•Regression •Sequence Pattern Extraction
Data Generalization	Data descriptions that are brief	•Summary Rules •Attribute-Orientated Induction

Source: Rob Kitchin, 2014 [35].

3.2. Tools

Three clustering algorithms are provided by the analytical tools, NodeXL software. The Stanford Network Analysis Platform (SNAP) library calculates network metrics from an analyzed graph, the second method is the Wakita-and-Tsurumi algorithm, the third algorithm is the Girvan-Newman algorithm, and the last algorithm is the Clauset-Newman-Moore algorithm [38]. The Clauset-Newman-Moore technique will be used in this study to categorize related vertices and divide them into groups, labels and specific words. The results will then be categorized in relevance with this research, which are: the geographical data, actors and opinion data, and the sentiment data.

4. Analysis results

The conversation network, which was taken from the #digitalnomad hashtag obtained from April to October 2019 is shown in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2.

The #digitalnomad conversation network in the twitter platform.

Source: Data Analysis

After identify the conversation network which happening in Twitter, the next step is to identify the most influenced users in the conversation network. Table 3 shown the users who are identified by calculating the value of betweenness centrality, which can be explained as the number of shortest paths the node is engaged in, to measure the importance of the node/users in a conversation network, in short those users have more response than other users in the conversation network, and has been widely used for network analysis in recent years [39]. This users are controlling the conversation network, lead the opinion between the twitter users who used the similar hashtag [40].

Table 3.

Most influenced users in the #digitalnomad conversation network.

Lead Opinion Users	Relationship Pattern	Betweenness Centrality	Post
thenomadeconomy		13434.000	Tropical paradise, Baliiii, what an office! Credit to @inviaggiocoltubo #digitalnomad #remotework #wanderlust https://t.co/KGz8AcTLPB
socialhackettes		12766.000	RT @RyanBiddulph: Tales from the Crapper: Toilet Trauma and Tips for Loving the Loo Abroad https://t.co/vhf0FUsooW via @RyanBiddulph #trave …
francismarkme		12370.000	"Random photos of Bogotá 2! #lifejourney #traveldiary #trip #journey #explore #discover #wander #tour #travel #adventure #digitalnomad #backpacker #solotravel #livelikealocal #mawoanders #worldtravel #Bogota #colombia #southamerica #world #earth #universe https://t.co/ZyTxwt4Ljxhttps://t.co/tfFVzW0oaI"
tdg_bnb		11308.000	RT @blissylife: Pica-Pica Like A Catalan With A Barcelona Food Tour! #travel #travelblog #nomad #digitalnomad #nomadlife #Barcelona #advent …
Ryanbiddulph		11250.000	Lunch. #thailand #travellife #travelblogging #travelblogger #traveling #travelholic #travelphotography #travelers #travelpictures #thailandtravel #digitalnomad #digitalnomadlife #digitalnomads #internetlifestyle #internetbusiness #dotcomlifestyle #blog … https://t.co/If7gEVBgJfhttps://t.co/eiJirfXNCp

Source: Data Analysis

The first user, @thenomadeconomy, can be classified as a community media, with the major goals of changing the perception of workplaces, 3.370 active followers, and 34356 posts about the motivation to become a digital nomad in this digital world. The second user is @socialhackettes, who is characterized as a digital agency company that provides digital nomad jobs. This person has 2559 followers and 4693 tweets. Third, there's @francismarkme, who describes himself as a nomaden techpreneur and has 347 followers and 1540 tweets. The fourth account is @tdg bnb, an Indian travel vlogger with 1747 and 61343 tweets. With 49239 followers and 536957 tweets, the last most popular user is @ ryanbiddulph, a digital nomad who lived in South East Asia. Opinion leadership among Twitter users suggests a higher intention to form a larger follower group. The goal of users to participate in social activities through information exchange was found to be positively associated with the intention of gaining a bigger number of followers, hence mediating opinion leadership, those opinion leader is pushing users to do the real action [41].Then, can be concluded if those users are the thought leaders who inspire others to become digital nomads.

Following the identification of how digital nomads are driven to migrate from one country to another, the tendency of global mobility pattern in the digital nomad phenomena is also one of the most essential items to be investigated from the datasets. The NodeXL software word analysis is used for the analysis, which utilizes the 6 (six) most often mentioned areas in the dataset as explained in Table .4.

Table 4.

The mobility trends based on Digital Nomad Dataset.

Popular Digital Nomad Origin Countries	Popular Destination Country for Digital Nomads	Counted Mention for the Destination Countries
United States	Bali, Indonesia	88 Times
United Kingdom	Phuket, Thailand	30 Times
The Netherlands	Tehran, Iran	16 Times
Italy	Madrid, Spain	11 Times
United Arab Emirates	Nicaragua	10 Times

Source: Data Analysis

The data analysis shown that in digital nomad phenomenon, the pattern of migration is relatively changed. In general, many of digital nomad worker, are came from the “Global North” countries, which is the country with high Gross Domestic Product Per-Capita to the “Global South”, which is the country with the Middle-Low Gross Domestic Product Per-Capita. The last but not least, the sentiment analysis is also performed. Sentiment Analysis is the extraction of thoughts, sentiments, and subjectivity from a script or text in order to determine if it is positive, negative, or neutral [42]. The analysis is performed by filtering the word inside the twitter post in the dataset by using the Microsoft Excel AI databases. The analysis is carried out by matching the users post, with the pre-defined positives and negative word. Then, can be concluded if many of the users who used the #digitalnomad hashtag have the positive sentiment as shown in Table .5.

Table 5.

The results of Sentiment Analysis on #Digitalnomad hashtag.

Sentiment	Results
Positive	1662
Negative	383
Angry/Violent	2

Source: Data Analysis

Following such sophisticated data analysis, the general theory of migration, which is the South-North migrant movement, and the legal readiness of the destination countries will be analyzed using relevant sources and information in the discussion.

5. Discussion

Following data analysis, the gap between the research findings and general migration theories will be examined in this section. First, the theoretical perspective of migration will be discussed, beginning with the classical method and progressing to the most recent development. The gap between hypotheses and findings will then be discussed. Third, the legal suitability of the key destination country for digital nomads will be investigated.

5.1. International migration: in the perspective of theory

The earliest and most well-known theory of international migration was first devised to explain labor mobility during the course of economic development. International migration, like internal migration, is caused by geographic disparities in labor supply and demand, according to this theory and its extensions [43]. Nations with a high labor endowment relative to capital have a low equilibrium market pay, whereas countries with a low labor endowment relative to capital have a high market wage, as illustrated graphically by the known interaction of labor supply and demand curves. As a result of the wage disparity, workers from the low-wage country migrate to the high-wage country. As a result of this movement, the supply of labor decreases and wages rise in the capital-poor country, while the supply of labor increases and wages fall in the capital-rich country, resulting in an international wage differential that, at equilibrium, reflects only the pecuniary and psychic costs of international movement [44].

A migration of investment capital from capital-rich to capital-poor countries mirrors the flow of workers from labor-rich to labor-scarce ones. The relative scarcity of capital in poor countries produces a high rate of return by worldwide standards, encouraging investment. Human capital is also moved, with highly trained workers relocating from capital-rich to capital-poor countries to reap high returns on their abilities in a human capital-scarce environment, resulting in a parallel migration of managers, technicians, and other talented workers. As a result, the worldwide flow of labor must be conceptually separated from the corresponding international flow of human capital. Even in the most aggregated macro-level models, the skill heterogeneity of immigrants must be readily visible.

Furthermore, the general theory of migration, which based on the labor movement always focusing on the labor who migrate from the south to the north. The South is explained as the “middle-low” income countries, and the north countries as the “high” income countries. This viewpoint is rapidly evolving in the post-World War II era, when many European countries received large numbers of workers from abroad for reconstruction and economic recovery [45]. Previously traditional migration destination countries such as Australia, Canada, and the United States are also receiving large numbers of migrants from overseas [46]. Meanwhile, the reality of international migration flows and stocks may be interpreted differently in the Global South. During the same time period, the number of international migrants residing in the South climbed from 40 % to 43 %, while the comparable percentage in the North decreased [47]. Between 2000 and 2017, the proportion of international migrants residing in Asia went from 29 to 31 percent, while that in Africa increased from 9 to 10 % [48]. In Europe, the proportion fell from 33 % to 30 %. Despite this drop, international migration has helped Europe's population rise by 2 %. Without net migration, it would have declined by 1 %, clearly undermining economic activity and the social systems that the prevailing rhetoric professes to preserve [49].

In 2017, 38 % of international migration came from South to South countries, 35 % from South to North, 20 % from North to North, and 6 % from North to South [50]. In Africa and Asia, 80 percent of international migrants went to those two regions, whereas only 60 percent went to Latin America and the Caribbean. In terms of origin, 60 percent of foreign migrants originating in Asia remained on the Asian continent, while 53 percent remained in Africa. However, in West Africa, the proportion of foreign migrants with a destination country in the sub-region increased to 84 percent, which is seven times higher than migration to any other region of the world [49].

5.2. Who are the north, and who are the south?

The debate over who is the North Country and who is the South Country is heated. Many scholars debate how classify for a country to be classed as North or South. Classifying countries based on income or human capacity/skill also ignores why certain countries have become 'high income/high-skill' or 'resource-rich' while others have remained 'low income/low-skill' or 'resource-constrained' [51]. While the difference between the usual state in the Global South and the typical state in the North is wider than ever, income levels within the Global South are more evenly distributed than in 1980. The difference, later used by the Brandt, as the classification standard to divide the world by using its Gross Domestic Product (GDP), by categorizing the country which has more than 0.7 percent GDP growth annually is classified as the North, and less than 0.7 percent is South, and those country need an international assistance, is highly relevant with the international migration, especially related to the labor movement [52]. Furthermore, the Brandt report also citing the Maddison project, which analyzing the real world GDP data, the Maddison Project data set consists of a single Excel sheet, a "vertical" file containing 232 years of observations (allowing for annual observations 1800–2010; 15 selected years from 1280 to 1775; and observations at years 1, 730, 1000, and 1150). On the horizontal axis, around 150 distinct territories and groups of territories address Europe, "Western Offshoots," Latin America, Asia, and Africa [53]. The data from the Madison project is broken up globally as shown in Fig. 3.

Fig. 3.

The Maddison Project Data World GDP analysis.

Source:Developed from the [53]

Based on the same data, until 1980s, Willy Brandt, developed the Brandt Report. The Brandt Report provides a plan for fixing the current financial system problem in global capitalism, because the number of countries who can't paid their debt is increasing rapidly [54]. Later, the report is used in order to classify which countries which has the right to be assisted by the “North” country as the International Development Assistance (ODA) program [55]. Basically, this classification is based on the publication, written by Brandt, as shown in Fig. 4.

Fig. 4.

The Brandt line, classifying global north and global south in 1980s.

Source [56].

This appears to be driven by the widening gap between the best and worst performing economies in the Global South in the past, especially post World War II, to the cold war period. Despite this, there is still little overlap between the historical North and the historical South. With the exception of oil producers, relatively few G77 countries have caught up with even the poorest OECD countries [9]. Furthermore, the Global South has always been heterogeneous in terms of income and economic development levels. Commodity price variations can drastically alter the fortunes of states in the Global South, notably widening economic disparities. Nonetheless, during the 1980s time of high oil prices and maximum economic variety, the Global South was united and vocal in asserting its collective rights. As a result, there may not be a direct relationship between income level similarities and political unity within the diversion of Global North or Global South. However, focusing on the International Migration, that perspective also becoming irrelevant, because the trends for the labor movement is drastically changed as shown in Fig. 5.

Fig. 5.

Number of international migrants from 1990 to 2020.

Source: UNDESA, 2020

Although still dominated by the “North” countries, there is a shifted of Saudi Arabia, which previously belong to the “South” countries, becoming popular as the destination country for the International migrant, particularly related to the labor movement [11]. Furthermore, in recent years, many scholar argued about the independent labor movement between the South countries to the South countries [57]. Mobility within African sub-regions and elsewhere in the South precedes the formation of the European nation-state model following early or late independence. One of nation-states' functions is to govern international mobility, particularly for non-citizens. Naturally, countries in the South have had to manage their citizens' high intraregional mobility through the concepts, laws, and institutions that comprise the governance of this unique sort of international migration.

However, a contradiction appeared when late decolonization unfolded in the late 1950s and early 1960s. European integration occurred, and the rights to free movement and employment were gradually acknowledged [58]. Freedom of movement was deemed important for integration, which was viewed as a strategy for ensuring peace and achieving accelerated economic progress. This beneficial shift in the outlook of nation-states was hopeful for southern states. It enabled the recognition and reinforcement of established mobility circuits, as well as the establishment of new ones, allowing for rapid economic growth and development [59]. On this foundation, nation-states in the South began sub-regional integration processes. Sub-regional integration strategies in Africa are meant to eventually culminate in regional and continental integration. Freedom of movement was an objective and means of action in almost all sub-regional integration initiatives. Some went far further, establishing regimes of unrestricted mobility and labor.

The Integration to supporting the free mobility and labor are becoming popular, especially between the “south” nations. The 1979 Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) Protocol on the Free Movement of Persons, the Right of Residence and Establishment, and its additional protocols originated in this vein [60]. Meanwhile, in Latin America and the Caribbean, the Caribbean Community and Common Market (CARICOM) and the Community of Andean Nations (CAN) established regimes for free movement of persons and labor (CAN) [61]. The Common Market of the South (MERCOSUR), whose member countries adopted the Residence Agreement in 2002, had the most advanced regime or plan for free movement of labor in Latin America. In Asia, the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) established its own regime of free movement [62]. To summarize, regional integration and free mobility are seen as ways to overcome often arbitrary barriers that divide communities and impede growth in many sub-regions.

5.3. Identifying the gap: between theory and evidences from digital nomad phenomenon

After describing how the Global North and Global South theories are slowly changing, as well as how the "south" countries are working together to make interregional travel simpler, the digital nomad presents new arguments in favor of the thesis that the pattern of global migration is changing. From the research finding, the discussion will focusing into the three main points on international migration, which are the motives for migrate, the pattern of mobility and the sentiment of the users for this phenomenon.

The first topic of discussion is the evolving reasons for digital nomads to migrate. As previously stated, in the conventional global north-south theories, which are based on the neo-classical theory of economy, the primary driving force for people's migration from their nation of origin to another country is invariably economic considerations [63]. Additionally, the lack of living conditions in the migrant's home country, combined with poor levels of human development, the safety of living conditions, and regional unemployment rates, are the most influential factors driving people to migrate, according to a recent study [59]. Conclusion: If poor living conditions are what drive individuals to move, the better living conditions promised by the nations where they want to settle are what are driving people to migrate.

However, the SNA performed in this research found the difference, if the voice of the communities, is becoming the main factor which pushing the people to migrate. The several opinion leader, such as @francismarkme, who identifies himself as a nomaden techpreneur, @tdg bnb, an Indian travel vlogger, and @ ryanbiddulph, a digital nomad who resided in South East Asia are among the individuals who fall into the category of "community media" represented by @thenomadeconomy. These users are developing more than 100 conversation clusters that promote an opposing viewpoint to North-South theories and place a greater emphasis on migration as the solution to the country's economic woes. According to the posts of those individuals, who also the opinion leader in the #digitalnomad conversation network, the factors driving the digital nomad international migration, are: a warm and tropical environment, affordable living expenses, simple access to the internet, and low or no tax rates for their money, which comes primarily from international activities. These results go counter to conventional migration theories, which generalize the economic factor as the primary driver of migration.

Consequently, based on the earlier study, community-related motivations can also be included as a driving force behind international migration. This strategy is also being developed as a tool to raise public awareness of climate change and encourage migration from other Asia Pacific regions [64]. When thousands of refugees flooded the Twitter platform with the conversation platform to stop the movement as refugees during the pandemic and promote the Global South to Global South Migration between Greek and Turkish, the community-based reasons for migrating were also there [65]. According to findings and facts from current study, people don't just relocate for economic reasons, as suggested by the Global North-Global South International Migration Theory, but also for reasons related to their communities.

The second topic of debate is international migrants' geographic mobility, particularly that of digital nomads. Based on the Global North-Global South theory, the movement of pattern is always going from the South to North [66]. There is a general consensus that the countries of the Global North include the United States, Canada, England, and members of the European Union, as well as Singapore, Japan, South Korea, and even certain nations in the southern hemisphere, such as Australia and New Zealand are full of labor, who originated from the Global South countries, On the other side, the Global South would comprise formerly colonial nations in Africa, Latin America, the Middle East, Brazil, India, and some regions of Asia. Even after gaining independence, many of these nations continue to bear the social, cultural, and economic scars of colonialism. The majority of the world's population still resides in the Global South, but it is a young, resource-poor, and economically dependent population [15]. However, the results of this study will alter how migrants from other countries migrate, particularly those who work as digital nomad.

The research finding is found the vice versa. Whereas based on the data analysis, the difference is getting clearly. Based on the tweets, mentions, and re-tweet, the most popular places which becoming the main destination for the digital nomad are: Nicaragua, Bali, Indonesia, Phuket, Thailand, Tehran, Iran, and Madrid, Spain, which dominated by the “Global South” countries. This discovery aids in locating the "alternative form of foreign workers" [8] known as the digital nomads in order to change those places and create better policies that specifically target them [67]. Those host countries offering the low or no tax rates, reasonable living expenses, and straightforward internet access, as discussed by the digital nomad in their conversation network, which lead by several leader opinion users. This research "Revises" the conventional perspective of ideas relating to international migration that claimed that labor only moved from South to North countries.

The third conclusion relates to how individuals feel about the digital nomad movement, which has gained a lot of popularity in recent years. It is critical to analyze sentiment in order to understand the genuine attractiveness of the digital nomad because the overall picture is still "blurry." The Digital Nomad is still "illegal", but accomodated in Spain, where the government has positioned them as regular tourists [68], although the Madrid is one of the most popular city for digital nomad based on the data analysis. Meanwhile, the infrastructure and populace in Chiang Mai, Thailand, are fully supporting the phenomena of the digital nomad [69]. However, the majority of Twitter users, particularly those who used the #digitalnomad hashtag, had positive feelings about the phenomena of digital nomads (1662 users have positive sentiment), whereas just 332 users have negative feelings about it. The gentrification effects between many digital nomad workers and the locals, as seen in Canggu, Bali, Indonesia, may be to blame for the negative sentiment, according to earlier research [70].

It can be concluded that this research shows a gap between the classic theories of international migration, which focus on mobility between the Global North and the Global South. In terms of motivations, many digital nomads move for community-based reasons rather than always for economic ones. The primary reasons to move are: Reasonable costs of living, low taxes and pleasant weather Second, many digital nomads come from countries in the Global South, which are classified as "emerging" nations. This is in contrast to old views that said that people, and especially labor, exclusively migrated from the South to North countries. Last but not least, public opinion toward digital nomads is favorable, indicating the urgent need for legislation to deal with this issue.

5.4. Legal readiness: are the digital nomad recipient country legally ready?

From the previous discussions, it is rather obvious if there is a discrepancy between the traditional idea of movement and the data provided by the digital nomad. Additionally, after identifying the theoretical gap, this research will assess the host nation's legal capacity to accommodate the digital nomad. Several countries have been identified as the digital nomad main destination, such as Indonesia, Thailand, Iran, Spain and Nicaragua. The next step is the legal readiness of those countries will be assessed, especially in relation with the availability of the specific visa for the digital nomad.

The particular legal framework for digital nomads is crucial because it will serve as the foundation for defining their obligations and rights in the destination nation. The importance of a legal foundation, such as a visa, will benefit the country where the digital nomad resides as well as the digital nomad. According to the OECD's analysis of Estonia's experience, the main advantages for digital nomads are: a stay and residence permit good for up to a year; priority processing for immigration documents; family member reunion; and tax reduction. However, there are some restrictions, including the fact that nomads cannot work for local businesses or have access to local benefits and services [9]. The benefit for the nation where those digital nomads lived is also increased consumption of locally produced goods, higher tax revenue than that from tourism visas, and the attraction of talent for local growth and knowledge transfer [69]. The next paragraph will assess the readiness of legal background for the digital nomad visa.

Indonesia, as one of the most popular destination for digital nomad, is get prepared. 3.017 digital nomads have been registered as of 2022 alone, according to data from the Ministry of Tourism, supporting this research [29]. Based on the Indonesia Immigration law, No. 6/2011, and Regulation of the Minister of Law and Human Rights Number. 24 of 2016 concerning Technical Procedures for Application and Granting of Visit Visas and Stay Visas, for foreign tourists who want to do digital nomads, it is now facilitated by using a socio-cultural or B211 destination visa which is eligible for all countries. This visa is valid for 60 days and can be extended up to 180 days or 6 months. However, Indonesia does not currently have a specific visa for the purposes of the digital nomads; the B211 visa is only used for purposes related to obligations as a digital nomad and does not govern the tax rate [71].

On the other hand, Thailand which also classified as the “South” country, and also the neighbor country for Indonesia, is relatively ready to accommodate the digital nomad. The Board of Investment ("BOI") introduced a new smart visa program on December 15, 2020, to enable foreigners who work legally in Thailand as digital nomads or freelancers. The Cabinet must also accept this plan for it to go into force after the Centre for Covid-19 Situation Administration ("CCSA") gave its blessing. However, Thailand continues to encounter difficulties, including gentrification caused by easy visas, which makes it difficult for digital nomads to blend in with the community [14]. Iran as the popular destination countries also not quite ready to accommodate the boom of digital nomad. The Iranian government developed many of the amenities for digital nomads, including co-working spaces, dependable international connections, and even simple access to transfer money into and out of Iran. The government only permits residents to stay in Iran for a maximum of 90 days, however because of the cultural aspects, it is growing in popularity among digital nomad communities despite the restricted access to entering Iranian land [72]. The same things also happened in Nicaragua, there is no such thing as a "Digital Nomad Visa." A valid passport is required, and visitors are typically given a 90-day visa that allows them to stay in Nicaragua, but this is not a guarantee since immigration officers do have the right to decide how long visitors are allowed to stay. As a result, if you decide to stay in Nicaragua and continue working remotely for a period of time longer than the 90-day limit, you will need to leave the country and then return in order to obtain a new visa. The neighboring nation of Costa Rica is frequently a simple and popular method to finish your visa run and might provide for a lovely holiday or a short getaway.

The different ways is experienced by the Spain, as the exception they are classified as the “North” countries. In Spain, the legal infrastructure for digital nomad is quite developed, the government has quick response to catch the new taxpayer, which are digital nomad. In Spain, the digital nomad visa basically similar to a full employment visa, a digital nomad visa allows foreigners to temporarily remain in a country for up to two years as long as they are employed and have the required minimum monthly income. They are targeted primarily at those who operate remotely in the digital industry and whose employers and clients are located outside of the nation in question. For the Nomad Visa to be granted, the remote worker must also meet the government's minimum income criteria, which in Spain will most likely be twice the minimum salary. Digital nomads must demonstrate that they make at least €2,100, if not €3,000, each month to be eligible for the visa because the current minimum monthly pay is €1,050, and Spain is increasingly popular to become the Digital Nomad destination [73].

5.5. Analysis of the further implication of digital nomad phenomenon

As previously discussed, the digital nomad phenomenon is expected to have substantial ramifications for global migration trends. With the advancement of technology, digital nomads are people who work remotely while traveling and dwelling in various areas across the world. This growing tendency upends traditional migration patterns by allowing individuals greater mobility and freedom in their destination choices. Digital nomads, unlike traditional migrants, are not limited by geography, allowing people to choose preferred locales based on personal preferences such as climate, cost of living, and quality of life. As a result, migratory flows may undergo a significant shift as more people choose for a location-independent lifestyle. This finding is corroborated by prior research, which found that remote working removes geographical boundaries between countries, particularly in tropical areas that serve as a "winter escape" for digital nomads (Bahri and Widhyharto, 2021).

From an economic standpoint, the influx of digital nomads can assist host countries. These individuals contribute to local economies by spending money on things like lodging, food, transportation, and other goods and services. Recognizing the potential economic impact, some governments have developed specific visas or programs to recruit digital nomads. In numerous European countries, including Spain, Malta, and Portugal, the digital nomad is the second largest contributor to the economy after tourism [68]. Nonetheless, the development of digital nomads poses problems to existing migration processes. Traditional immigration laws, which are largely based on fixed job and residency criteria, may need to evolve in order to accommodate the expanding population of mobile workers. New visa categories or laws adapted to the specific demands of digital nomads may be required.

Furthermore, the presence of digital nomads can have an impact on both positive and bad local communities. While they frequently contribute to cultural interchange by introducing new viewpoints and improving local cultures, difficulties might develop (Bahri and Widhyharto, 2021). Potential issues include growing housing costs, infrastructure strain, and cultural disputes. As a result, competent management is required to create a mutually beneficial experience for both digital nomads and the communities with which they interact.

The study challenges traditional migration theories by shedding light on the motivations, patterns, and sentiments of digital nomads, thereby necessitating a reevaluation of existing theoretical frameworks. While conventional theories emphasize economic drivers, the research reveals the significant influence of community-based factors in shaping international migration decisions. Moreover, the study unveils a paradigm shift in migration patterns, particularly with digital nomads' movement from "Global South" countries to destinations typically associated with the "Global North," highlighting the need for a more nuanced understanding of contemporary mobility dynamics.

Practically, the findings underscore the urgency for policymakers to adapt immigration policies to accommodate digital nomads, including the development of specific visa categories and addressing taxation frameworks. Furthermore, host countries can harness the economic opportunities presented by digital nomads to stimulate local economies through incentives and infrastructure development. Effective community integration and management strategies are also crucial to mitigate potential challenges and foster mutual understanding between digital nomads and local communities. Overall, the study emphasizes the dynamic nature of global workforce dynamics and the importance of holistic approaches in addressing the evolving landscape of migration in the digital age.

6. Conclusion

The recent surge in international migration, with the global migrant population reaching 281 million in 2021, underscores the need for a nuanced understanding of migration dynamics. While traditional migration categories like labor migrants and refugees remain significant, the emergence of digital nomadism challenges conventional migration paradigms. Digital nomads, facilitated by technology and globalization, lead location-independent lifestyles, reshaping work and mobility trends. This research aims to explore the implications of digital nomadism on migration theories and destination countries' readiness. By leveraging real-time data from platforms like X and employing Social Network Analysis, the study seeks to inform evidence-based policymaking to accommodate the evolving dynamics of global mobility, especially in the context of digital nomadism.

The research employs a qualitative approach, particularly Social Network Analysis (SNA), to gain deeper insights into the phenomenon of digital nomadism. SNA involves mapping, measuring, and analyzing social relationships within a network, where nodes represent individual entities and edges depict connections or relationships between them. One crucial metric in SNA is betweenness centrality, which identifies influential actors that facilitate the flow of information or resources within the network. The data for this study was obtained from Twitter, collected using specific hashtags related to digital nomadism and remote work. The dataset underwent data mining procedures, including segmentation, classification, association, deviation analysis, trend analysis, and generalization, to extract meaningful insights. Tools such as NodeXL software and clustering algorithms were utilized to analyze the data and categorize relevant vertices into groups based on geographical, actor, opinion, and sentiment data. Overall, the research aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of digital nomadism by examining social interactions and network dynamics within the digital nomad community on Twitter.

The analysis of the #digitalnomad conversation network on Twitter reveals influential users who lead opinions and discussions within the digital nomad community. These thought leaders, such as @thenomadeconomy and @ryanbiddulph, inspire others to embrace the digital nomad lifestyle. Additionally, the study examines the mobility trends among digital nomads, highlighting popular origin countries like the United States and destination countries like Bali, Indonesia. This indicates a shift in migration patterns, with digital nomads predominantly originating from economically developed countries and migrating to destinations with favorable conditions for remote work. Furthermore, sentiment analysis of tweets using the #digitalnomad hashtag indicates a predominantly positive sentiment among users, reflecting the enthusiasm and optimism associated with the digital nomad lifestyle. These findings contribute to understanding the motivations, behaviors, and sentiments of digital nomads in the contemporary global landscape.

The analysis delves into the evolving landscape of migration, highlighting the gap between traditional theories and the digital nomad phenomenon. While classical migration theories emphasize labor mobility driven by economic factors from low-wage to high-wage countries, contemporary trends reveal a shift towards community-based motivations and migration patterns that challenge traditional North-South distinctions. Digital nomads, predominantly originating from Global South countries, are reshaping migration dynamics by migrating to destinations worldwide, including within the Global South itself. This phenomenon underscores the need for a nuanced understanding of migration motives and patterns, as well as adaptation in immigration policies and legal frameworks to accommodate the growing presence of digital nomads and harness their potential benefits while addressing associated challenges such as infrastructure strain and cultural integration.

Data availability statement

Data is unavailable because it is confidential.

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Mohammad Thoriq Bahri: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Visualization, Validation, Supervision, Software, Resources, Project administration, Methodology, Investigation, Funding acquisition, Formal analysis, Data curation, Conceptualization.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare the following financial interests/personal relationships which may be considered as potential competing interests:Mohammad Thoriq Bahri reports financial support was provided by University of Szeged. If there are other authors, they declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.