Table 3.
Association between coffee consumption and risk of dementia in the participants.
| Coffee consumption, Cups/day | P-value | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| None | 0.5–1 | 2–3 | 4–5 | ≥ 6 | ||||
| HR (95% CI) | HR (95% CI) | HR (95% CI) | HR (95% CI) | HR (95% CI) | ||||
| All-cause dementia | ||||||||
| Participants without hypertension | Model1 | – | – | – | – | Ref. | 0.304 | |
| Model2 | – | – | – | – | Ref. | 0.650 | ||
| Model3 | – | – | – | – | Ref. | 0.608 | ||
| Model4 | – | – | – | – | Ref. | 0.945 | ||
| Participants with hypertension | Model1 | 0.784 (0.680, 0.903) | 0.688 (0.601, 0.788) | 0.718 (0.628, 0.820) | 0.753 (0.648, 0.874) | Ref. | < 0.001 | |
| Model2 | 0.785 (0.665, 0.925) | 0.729 (0.623, 0.854) | 0.762 (0.653, 0.889) | 0.788 (0.663, 0.937) | Ref. | 0.003 | ||
| Model3 | 0.797 (0.670, 0.950) | 0.749 (0.634, 0.885) | 0.771 (0.655, 0.908) | 0.782 (0.652, 0.939) | Ref. | 0.017 | ||
| Model4 | 0.768 (0.637, 0.927) | 0.733 (0.613, 0.875) | 0.746 (0.626, 0.888) | 0.763 (0.628, 0.929) | Ref. | 0.014 | ||
| Total population | Model1 | 0.817 (0.724, 0.923) | 0.725 (0.646, 0.814) | 0.762 (0.680, 0.853) | 0.807 (0.711, 0.915) | Ref. | < 0.001 | |
| Model2 | 0.838 (0.727, 0.965) | 0.777 (0.679, 0.889) | 0.822 (0.720, 0.938) | 0.858 (0.741, 0.993) | Ref. | 0.006 | ||
| Model3 | 0.863 (0.743, 1.004) | 0.801 (0.694, 0.925) | 0.836 (0.726, 0.963) | 0.866 (0.741, 1.012) | Ref. | 0.040 | ||
| Model4 | 0.825 (0.702, 0.970) | 0.784 (0.672, 0.915) | 0.804 (0.690, 0.935) | 0.829 (0.700, 0.980) | Ref. | 0.041 | ||
| Alzheimer disease | ||||||||
| Participants without hypertension | Model1 | – | – | – | – | Ref. | 0.695 | |
| Model2 | – | – | – | – | Ref. | 0.403 | ||
| Model3 | – | – | – | – | Ref. | 0.584 | ||
| Model4 | – | – | – | – | Ref. | 0.949 | ||
| Participants with hypertension | Model1 | 0.794 (0.637, 0.988) | 0.701 (0.568, 0.864) | 0.745 (0.607, 0.916) | 0.750 (0.595, 0.946) | Ref. | 0.018 | |
| Model2 | – | – | – | – | Ref. | 0.184 | ||
| Model3 | – | – | – | – | Ref. | 0.568 | ||
| Model4 | – | – | – | – | Ref. | 0.393 | ||
| Total population | Model1 | 0.834 (0.691, 1.008) | 0.754 (0.630, 0.902) | 0.807 (0.676, 0.963) | 0.830 (0.682, 1.010) | Ref. | 0.035 | |
| Model2 | – | – | – | – | Ref. | 0.174 | ||
| Model3 | – | – | – | – | Ref. | 0.709 | ||
| Model4 | – | – | – | – | Ref. | 0.565 | ||
| Vascular dementia | ||||||||
| Participants without hypertension | Model1 | – | – | – | – | Ref. | 0.106 | |
| Model2 | – | – | – | – | Ref. | 0.403 | ||
| Model3 | – | – | – | – | Ref. | 0.220 | ||
| Model4 | – | – | – | – | Ref. | 0.488 | ||
| Participants with hypertension | Model1 | 0.711 (0.539, 0.937) | 0.645 (0.496, 0.839) | 0.590 (0.455, 0.766) | 0.611 (0.453, 0.823) | Ref. | 0.002 | |
| Model2 | 0.720 (0.526, 0.986) | 0.695 (0.516, 0.937) | 0.603 (0.447, 0.812) | 0.656 (0.469, 0.919) | Ref. | 0.020 | ||
| Model3 | 0.712 (0.510, 0.994) | 0.673 (0.490, 0.923) | 0.615 (0.449, 0.842) | 0.641 (0.449, 0.917) | Ref. | 0.046 | ||
| Model4 | – | – | – | – | Ref. | 0.131 | ||
| Total population | Model1 | 0.737 (0.575, 0.944) | 0.654 (0.517, 0.828) | 0.609 (0.482, 0.769) | 0.693 (0.533, 0.900) | Ref. | 0.001 | |
| Model2 | 0.753 (0.569, 0.997) | 0.693 (0.530, 0.905) | 0.630 (0.483, 0.821) | 0.731 (0.545, 0.982) | Ref. | 0.014 | ||
| Model3 | 0.736 (0.547, 0.990) | 0.671 (0.506, 0.889) | 0.641 (0.485, 0.847) | 0.722 (0.529, 0.985) | Ref. | 0.032 | ||
| Model4 | – | – | – | – | Ref. | 0.164 | ||
Model 1: adjusted for basic socio-demographic characteristics [age; sex; ethnicity; education level; occupation status; TDI; BMI].
Model 2: adjusted for Model 1 and lifestyle [smoking status; dietary patterns; alcohol consumption; physical activity; social contact; duration of sedentary behavior].
Model 3: adjusted for Model 2 and health-related issues [family history of dementia; APOE genotype; depression; history of cancer; history of cardiovascular disease].
Model 4: adjusted for Model3 and serum markers and drug use [Aspirin use status; lipid-lowering medications use status; dyslipidemia; hypertriglyceridemia; serum 25(OH)D status].