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. 2024 Sep 10;14:21063. doi: 10.1038/s41598-024-71426-y

Table 3.

Association between coffee consumption and  risk of dementia in the participants.

Coffee consumption, Cups/day P-value
None 0.5–1 2–3 4–5  ≥ 6
HR (95% CI) HR (95% CI) HR (95% CI) HR (95% CI) HR (95% CI)
All-cause dementia
 Participants without hypertension Model1 Ref. 0.304
Model2 Ref. 0.650
Model3 Ref. 0.608
Model4 Ref. 0.945
 Participants with hypertension Model1 0.784 (0.680, 0.903) 0.688 (0.601, 0.788) 0.718 (0.628, 0.820) 0.753 (0.648, 0.874) Ref.  < 0.001
Model2 0.785 (0.665, 0.925) 0.729 (0.623, 0.854) 0.762 (0.653, 0.889) 0.788 (0.663, 0.937) Ref. 0.003
Model3 0.797 (0.670, 0.950) 0.749 (0.634, 0.885) 0.771 (0.655, 0.908) 0.782 (0.652, 0.939) Ref. 0.017
Model4 0.768 (0.637, 0.927) 0.733 (0.613, 0.875) 0.746 (0.626, 0.888) 0.763 (0.628, 0.929) Ref. 0.014
 Total population Model1 0.817 (0.724, 0.923) 0.725 (0.646, 0.814) 0.762 (0.680, 0.853) 0.807 (0.711, 0.915) Ref.  < 0.001
Model2 0.838 (0.727, 0.965) 0.777 (0.679, 0.889) 0.822 (0.720, 0.938) 0.858 (0.741, 0.993) Ref. 0.006
Model3 0.863 (0.743, 1.004) 0.801 (0.694, 0.925) 0.836 (0.726, 0.963) 0.866 (0.741, 1.012) Ref. 0.040
Model4 0.825 (0.702, 0.970) 0.784 (0.672, 0.915) 0.804 (0.690, 0.935) 0.829 (0.700, 0.980) Ref. 0.041
Alzheimer disease
 Participants without hypertension Model1 Ref. 0.695
Model2 Ref. 0.403
Model3 Ref. 0.584
Model4 Ref. 0.949
 Participants with hypertension Model1 0.794 (0.637, 0.988) 0.701 (0.568, 0.864) 0.745 (0.607, 0.916) 0.750 (0.595, 0.946) Ref. 0.018
Model2 Ref. 0.184
Model3 Ref. 0.568
Model4 Ref. 0.393
 Total population Model1 0.834 (0.691, 1.008) 0.754 (0.630, 0.902) 0.807 (0.676, 0.963) 0.830 (0.682, 1.010)  Ref. 0.035
Model2 Ref. 0.174
Model3 Ref. 0.709
Model4 Ref. 0.565
Vascular dementia
 Participants without hypertension Model1 Ref. 0.106
Model2 Ref. 0.403
Model3 Ref. 0.220
Model4 Ref. 0.488
 Participants with hypertension Model1 0.711 (0.539, 0.937) 0.645 (0.496, 0.839) 0.590 (0.455, 0.766) 0.611 (0.453, 0.823) Ref. 0.002
Model2 0.720 (0.526, 0.986) 0.695 (0.516, 0.937) 0.603 (0.447, 0.812) 0.656 (0.469, 0.919) Ref. 0.020
Model3 0.712 (0.510, 0.994) 0.673 (0.490, 0.923) 0.615 (0.449, 0.842) 0.641 (0.449, 0.917) Ref. 0.046
Model4 Ref. 0.131
 Total population Model1 0.737 (0.575, 0.944) 0.654 (0.517, 0.828) 0.609 (0.482, 0.769) 0.693 (0.533, 0.900) Ref. 0.001
Model2 0.753 (0.569, 0.997) 0.693 (0.530, 0.905) 0.630 (0.483, 0.821) 0.731 (0.545, 0.982) Ref. 0.014
Model3 0.736 (0.547, 0.990) 0.671 (0.506, 0.889) 0.641 (0.485, 0.847) 0.722 (0.529, 0.985) Ref. 0.032
Model4 Ref. 0.164

Model 1: adjusted for basic socio-demographic characteristics [age; sex; ethnicity; education level; occupation status; TDI; BMI].

Model 2: adjusted for Model 1 and lifestyle [smoking status; dietary patterns; alcohol consumption; physical activity; social contact; duration of sedentary behavior].

Model 3: adjusted for Model 2 and health-related issues [family history of dementia; APOE genotype; depression; history of cancer; history of cardiovascular disease].

Model 4: adjusted for Model3 and serum markers and drug use [Aspirin use status; lipid-lowering medications use status; dyslipidemia; hypertriglyceridemia; serum 25(OH)D status].