Table 1.
Normal Breast | Breast Cancer | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Microbes | Levels | Functions | Ref. | Microbes | Levels | Functions | Ref. |
Sphingomonas | Higher | Degrades environmental carcinogens, aromatic hydrocarbons, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons; protective against ER+ breast cancer | [24,28] | Fusobacterium nucleatum | Higher | Promotes breast cancer cell attachment, invasion, and colonization during metastasis; impairs immunity and therapy response; activates β-catenin-mediated oncogene transcription and cell proliferation; produces β-lactamase for resistance to β-lactam antibiotics (e.g., penicillin) | [24,29,30,31] |
Firmicutes, Actinobacteria |
Higher | Negatively correlate with stromal fibrosis and breast cancer risk; enriched in breast milk | [32,33,34] | ||||
Lactobacillaceae, Acetobacterraceae, Leuconostocaceae Xanthomonadaceae |
Higher | Induce fructose and mannose metabolism and immune-related genes; enriched in breast milk of healthy women | [35,36,37] | Enterobacteriaceae, Staphylococcus | Higher | Induce DNA double-strand breaks in host cells | [38,39] |
Ralstonia | Higher | Dysregulates genes involved in carbohydrate metabolism | [35] | ||||
Cyanobacteria | Higher | Produce anti-cancer molecules (e.g., Cryptophycin F) | [40] | Atopobium, Gluconacetobacter | Higher | Modulate immunological responses | [24,41,42] |
Proteobacteria, Synergistetes, Tenericutes | Higher | Regulate milk composition and production | [43,44] | Porphyromonadaceae, Ruminococcaceae | Higher | Participate in aberrant host metabolism | [40,45,46] |
Prevotellaceae,
Butyricimonas |
Higher | Produce short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) (propionate and butyrate) that exert anti-tumor activities | [40,47,48,49] |
Sutterella, Verrucomicrobiaceae |
Higher | Also found in cecal microbiota | [40,50,51] |
Acinetobacter | Higher | Abundant in HR+ and HER2+ breast cancer | [40,52] | ||||
Flavobacterium,
Hydrogenophaga |
Higher | Abundant in metastatic breast cancer | [40,53,54] | ||||
Alcaligenaceae, Moraxellaceae, Parabacteroides |
Higher | Enriched in breast milk | [40,55] |
Akkermansia (phylum Verrucomicrobia), Thermia |
Higher | Abundant in TNBC | [40,56] |