Table 1.

Results of experimental studies in humans investigating the use of cow’s milk bioactive molecules on glucoregulation-related outcomes.

	Obesity Phenotype		Blood Glucose Parameters
	Improve	Neutral/Worse	Improve	Neutral/Worse
	Carbohydrate bioactives
Lactose	--	BMI [38]	GTT [39,40]	FBG, PPG [38]
Galactose	--	--	G-Ra [41,42]	FPG, HOMA-IR [41]
			PPG [41,43]
			GTT [44,45]
			FPG [42,46]
Oligosaccharides—No human studies
Lipid bioactives
Milk fat globule membrane	--	BMI [47]	GTT [48]	FBG [47,48,49,50]
				GTT [50]
				HOMA-IR [47]
Polar lipids	WC [51]	BW [52]	--	FBG [51,52]
				HOMA-IR [52]
Even-chain fatty acids—No human studies
Odd-chain fatty acids	BW, FM [53]	--	FBG, HOMA-IR [53]	--
Trans fatty acids	CLA: BW or BMI, FM (MA [54,55])	--	--	CLA: FBG, HOMA-IR (MA [56])
				RA: FBG [57,58]
				RA: Clamp [58]
Branched-chain fatty acids—No human studies
Protein bioactives
Whey hydrolysate	BW [59]	--	FBG [60,61]	HOMA-IR [62]
			GTT [61,63]
			HbA1c [63]
			CGMS [60]
Casein hydrolysate	--	--	FBG [60,61]
			GTT [61]
			CGMS [60]
Peptides—No human studies

Abbreviations: G-Ra, glucose rate of appearance; BW, body weight; BMI, body mass index; FM, fat mass; FBG, fasting blood glucose; PPG, postprandial glucose; GTT, glucose tolerance test; HOMA-IR, Homeostatic Model Assessment for Insulin Resistance; MA, meta-analysis; CGMS, continuous glucose monitoring system, -- no data. This table provides a summary of relevant literature but does not represent a comprehensive systematic review.