Table 1.
Patient Demographic, Clinical, and Lifestyle Characteristics for the 4 Primary Outcome Groups, Determined According to Combinations of Cognitive and Pathologic Statuses (the Low-Risk Control, High-Resilience, Low-Resilience, and High-Risk Susceptible Control Groups) in Cohort 1
| Variable | Low-risk control group (asymptomatic, low pathology; group 1) (n = 103) | High-resilience group (asymptomatic, high pathology; group 2) (n = 60) | Low-resilience group (symptomatic, low pathology; group 3) (n = 15) | High-risk susceptible control group (symptomatic, high pathology; group 4) (n = 40) | p Valuea | p Valueb | p Valuec | p Valued |
| Group 2 vs group 4 | Group 2 vs group 3 | Group 2 vs group 1 | Group 1 vs group 3 | |||||
| Demographic information | ||||||||
| Racee | ||||||||
| Asian | <3 (1.98) | <3 (3.33) | 0 (0) | <3 (5) | 0.19 | 0.75 | 0.94 | 0.76 |
| Black or African American | <3 (0.99) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | ||||
| Native Hawaiian or other Pacific Islander | <3 (0.99) | <3 (1.67) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | ||||
| White | 92 (91.09) | 55 (91.67) | 14 (93.33) | 33 (82.5) | ||||
| Otherf | 5 (4.95) | <3 (3.33) | <3 (6.67) | 5 (12.5) | ||||
| Sex (female) | 57 (55.34) | 38 (63.33) | 10 (66.67) | 20 (50) | 0.19 | 0.81 | 0.32 | 0.41 |
| Visit age, y | 36.77 ± 9.69 | 38.38 ± 7.53 | 44.47 ± 9.61 | 43.63 ± 8.78 | 0.002 | 0.010 | 0.24 | 0.005 |
| Years of education | 15.09 ± 2.97 | 14.07 ± 2.55 | 12.47 ± 3.87 | 13.68 ± 4.03 | 0.50 | 0.14 | 0.03 | 0.009 |
| Occupational score | 3.64 ± 1.55 | 3.52 ± 1.41 | 4.40 ± 1.72 | 4.23 ± 1.76 | 0.04 | 0.07 | 0.77 | 0.11 |
| Genetics | ||||||||
| APOE | ||||||||
| 22, 23 | 10 (9.71) | 6 (10) | <3 (13.33) | 5 (12.5) | 0.56 | 0.25 | 0.32 | 0.63 |
| 33 | 68 (66.02) | 33 (55) | 11 (73.33) | 25 (62.5) | ||||
| 24, 34, 44 | 25 (24.27) | 21 (35) | <3 (13.33) | 10 (25) | ||||
| Family pathogenic variation | ||||||||
| PSEN1 | 64 (62.14) | 51 (85) | 12 (80) | 35 (87.5) | 0.05 | 0.11 | 0.003 | 0.34 |
| PSEN2 | 14 (13.59) | 6 (10) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | ||||
| APP | 25 (24.27) | 3 (5) | 3 (20) | 5 (12.5) | ||||
| Present illness | ||||||||
| Traumatic brain injury (present) | 13 (12.62) | 5 (8.62) | <3 (14.29) | 3 (7.5) | 1.00 | 0.62 | 0.44 | 1.00 |
| Hypertension (present) | 11 (10.68) | <3 (3.33) | <3 (13.33) | 4 (10) | 0.21 | 0.18 | 0.13 | 0.67 |
| Hypercholesterolemia (present) | 16 (15.69) | 6 (10.53) | 5 (33.33) | 4 (10.53) | 1.00 | 0.04 | 0.37 | 0.14 |
| Diabetes (present) | <3 (1.94) | 0 (0) | <3 (13.33) | 0 (0) | — | 0.04 | 0.53 | 0.08 |
| Thyroid disease (present) | 8 (8.08) | <3 (1.69) | 0 (0) | <3 (5.26) | 0.56 | 1.00 | 0.16 | 0.59 |
| Psychiatric disease (present) | 11 (10.68) | 8 (13.33) | 4 (26.67) | 6 (15) | 0.81 | 0.24 | 0.61 | 0.10 |
| Depression (present) | 9 (8.74) | 9 (15) | 9 (60) | 22 (55) | <0.001 | 0.001 | 0.22 | <0.001 |
| History of stroke (present) | <3 (0.97) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 3 (7.5) | 0.06 | — | 1.00 | 1.00 |
| Hachinski ischemic score | ||||||||
| 0 | 94 (91.26) | 55 (91.67) | 10 (66.67) | 26 (65) | 0.001 | 0.011 | 1.00 | 0.001 |
| 1 | 8 (7.77) | 4 (6.67) | <3 (6.67) | 6 (15) | ||||
| 2–7 | <3 (0.97) | <3 (1.67) | 4 (26.67) | 8 (20) | ||||
| Tobacco 100 (yes) | 38 (36.89) | 33 (55) | 8 (53.33) | 18 (45) | 0.33 | 0.91 | 0.02 | 0.22 |
| Packs per day | ||||||||
| 1 cigarette–0.5 pack | 25 (24.27) | 11 (18.64) | 3 (21.43) | 10 (26.32) | 0.47 | 0.94 | 0.05 | 0.15 |
| 0.5–1 pack | 10 (9.71) | 15 (25.42) | 4 (28.57) | 5 (13.16) | ||||
| 1–1.5 pack | 5 (4.85) | 4 (6.78) | <3 (7.14) | <3 (5.26) | ||||
| N/A | 63 (61.17) | 29 (49.15) | 6 (42.86) | 21 (55.26) | ||||
| Alcohol use (yes) | <3 (1.94) | 5 (8.33) | <3 (13.33) | 3 (7.5) | 1.00 | 0.62 | 0.10 | 0.08 |
| Substance abuse (yes) | 4 (3.88) | 7 (11.67) | 3 (20) | 5 (12.82) | 1.00 | 0.41 | 0.10 | 0.04 |
| Social contact | ||||||||
| Cohabitating (yes) | 72 (69.9) | 42 (70) | 9 (60) | 32 (80) | 0.26 | 0.54 | 0.99 | 0.55 |
| Living status | ||||||||
| Lives alone | 14 (13.59) | 6 (10) | 3 (20) | 4 (10) | 0.95 | 0.21 | 0.49 | 0.06 |
| Lives with spouse or partner | 75 (72.82) | 42 (70) | 7 (46.67) | 27 (67.5) | ||||
| Lives with relative, friend, group, or others | 14 (13.59) | 12 (20) | 5 (33.33) | 9 (22.5) | ||||
| Residency (single family residence) | 102 (99.03) | 59 (98.33) | 14 (93.33) | 38 (95) | 0.56 | 0.36 | 1.00 | 0.24 |
| Able to live independently (yes) | 101 (99.02) | 60 (100) | 12 (80) | 27 (67.5) | <0.001 | 0.007 | 1.00 | 0.006 |
| Marital status | ||||||||
| Married, living as married | 31 (30.10) | 19 (31.67) | 8 (53.33) | 12 (30) | 0.86 | 0.12 | 0.83 | 0.09 |
| Other (widowed, divorced, separated, or never married) | 72 (69.90) | 41 (68.33) | 7 (46.67) | 28 (70) | ||||
| Physical activity | ||||||||
| Total physical activity volume | 3,014.28 ± 4,078.87 | 1,763.08 ± 1,823.14 | 2,030.47 ± 2,573.54 | 2,096.08 ± 2,149.80 | 0.49 | 0.96 | 0.08 | 0.31 |
| Moderate-intensity exercise (3.0–5.9 METs) | 1,497.43 ± 2,182.21 | 869.13 ± 1,455.50 | 652.87 ± 532.08 | 751.30 ± 968.47 | 0.76 | 0.93 | 0.03 | 0.25 |
| High-intensity exercise (≥6.0 METs) | 1,516.84 ± 2,788.39 | 893.95 ± 1,232.77 | 1,377.60 ± 2,184.43 | 1,379.26 ± 1,960.59 | 0.28 | 0.87 | 0.15 | 0.64 |
| IPIP | ||||||||
| Collateral-reported scores | ||||||||
| Neuroticism | 58.26 ± 14.78 | 63.52 ± 18.17 | 70.79 ± 14.54 | 74.03 ± 13.91 | 0.003 | 0.17 | 0.05 | 0.004 |
| Extraversion | 84.17 ± 13.32 | 83.77 ± 11.17 | 77.14 ± 16.87 | 71.74 ± 15.46 | <0.001 | 0.31 | 0.36 | 0.10 |
| Openness to experience | 77.07 ± 11.05 | 74.18 ± 8.74 | 70.64 ± 16.80 | 66.58 ± 10.57 | <0.001 | 0.46 | 0.09 | 0.19 |
| Agreeableness | 97.55 ± 10.50 | 94.18 ± 12.08 | 81.64 ± 14.85 | 91.39 ± 14.81 | 0.42 | 0.004 | 0.09 | <0.001 |
| Conscientiousness | 96.89 ± 12.74 | 92.95 ± 18.12 | 86.50 ± 13.88 | 77.11 ± 20.56 | <0.001 | 0.08 | 0.48 | 0.012 |
Abbreviations: Cohabitating = living with someone else; IPIP = International Personality Item Pool; MET = metabolic equivalent; N/A = not available; Packs per day = average number of packs/day smoked; Tobacco 100 = smoked more than 100 cigarettes in his or her lifetime.
The data are presented as n (%) or mean ± SD. We did not specify data from small groups of participants (<3) to protect participant privacy. Normality of distributions was assessed by the Shapiro‒Wilk test. Demographic data were compared between groups using the t test or Wilcoxon rank-sum test for continuous variables and the χ2 test or Fisher exact test for categorical variables. Statistical significance (p < 0.0125) is indicated by bold font for all pairwise comparisons across groups in accordance with Bonferroni correction for multiple comparisons.
Comparison between the high-resilience group who maintained cognitive function despite high pathology and the high-risk susceptible control group who had dementia with high pathology.
Comparison between the high-resilience group who maintained cognitive function despite high pathology and the low-resilience group who had dementia despite low pathology.
Comparison between the high-resilience group who maintained cognitive function despite high pathology and the cognitively unimpaired group with low pathology.
Comparison between the cognitively unimpaired group with low pathology and the low-resilience group who had dementia despite low pathology.
The demographic information from the DIAN study, including race and ethnicity, is self-reported by the participants.
The “other” category for race includes the following ethnicities: Hispanic, Aboriginal Australian, Aboriginal, Croatian, Australian Indigenous, North African, Libyan, Middle Eastern, Arab, Mediterranean, Mexican American, Native Puerto Rican, and Latin American.