Table 1.

Comparative analysis of Life-Span of Li-batteries and others.

	Lithium-Ion (Li-ion)/Li-Batteries	Lead-Acid Batteries	Nickel-Cadmium (Ni-Cd) Batteries	Nickel-Metal Hydride (NiMH) Batteries	Solid-State Batteries
Cycle life	Li-batteries typically offer a cycle life of 300–1000 cycles, depending on the specific chemistry (such as NCA, NMC, LFP) and usage conditions. High-quality Li-batteries can even exceed 1000 cycles with proper management.	Lead-acid batteries, including both flooded and sealed types, have a shorter cycle life compared to Li-batteries. They typically range from 200 to 800 cycles, with deep-cycle variants on the higher end.	Ni-Cd batteries have a cycle life of about 1000–1500 cycles, making them relatively robust compared to lead-acid batteries but still generally lower than high-quality Li-batteries.	NiMH batteries offer a cycle life of approximately 500–1000 cycles, which is better than lead-acid but can be less than Li-ion under certain conditions.	Solid-state batteries, still in the developmental and early commercialization stages, promise very high cycle lives, potentially exceeding 1000 cycles, like or better than Li-ion batteries.
Calendar life	The calendar life of Li-batteries is generally 5–10 years. Advances in battery management systems (BMS) and improvements in battery chemistry continue to extend this lifespan.	The calendar life of lead-acid batteries is around 3–5 years, though this can be lower under heavy cycling or poor maintenance conditions.	The calendar life of Ni-Cd batteries can extend up to 10 years under ideal conditions.	NiMH batteries typically have a calendar life of 5–7 years.	The calendar life of solid-state batteries is projected to be superior, possibly exceeding 10 years, due to their solid electrolyte, which reduces issues related to liquid electrolyte degradation.
Performance degradation	Li-ion batteries experience gradual capacity loss over time due to factors like high temperature, deep discharges, and high charging rates. Typically, a well-maintained Li-ion battery retains about 80 % of its original capacity after 3–5 years of regular use.	Lead-acid batteries suffer significant degradation if frequently discharged beyond 50 % of their capacity, and they are highly susceptible to sulfation, which reduces their capacity over time.	Ni-Cd batteries are prone to the "memory effect," where partial discharge cycles can lead to a reduced effective capacity. However, they are more tolerant of high discharge rates and extreme temperatures.	NiMH batteries do not suffer from the memory effect as severely as Ni-Cd batteries but can experience significant self-discharge rates and capacity degradation over time.	The calendar life of solid-state batteries is projected to be superior, possibly exceeding 10 years, due to their solid electrolyte, which reduces issues related to liquid electrolyte degradation.