Table 1.

Description of included articles.

First Author, Year, Reference No.	Article Title	Domains	Racial Comparisons	Measures of Structural Racism
Agénor, 202187	“Developing a database of structural racism–related state laws for health equity research and practice in the United States”	Electoral, judicial, carceral, immigration, housing, banking, education, policing	N/A	Typology of contemporary legal domains pertaining to state-level structural racism
Allgood, 202131	“Equal protection under the law: the measurement of structural racism and health disparities”	Environment, police exposure, residential segregation, school segregation	Black-White	Pre-post racialized event (a situation in which marginalized groups are more affected; vicarious exposure, ie, Flint Water Crisis Declaration); number of police encounters; index of dissimilarity; index of isolation; ICE (race) in census tract and in school
Bell, 201928	“Associations between obesity, obesogenic environments, and structural racism vary by county-level racial composition”	Socioeconomics	Black-White	County-level Black-White ratios for median income, percentage living below the poverty line, percentage who completed a 4-year college degree, percentage who were unemployed, and percentage who were homeowners. Split into quartiles (low, medium, medium-high, high)
Bell, 202032	“Self-rated health and structural racism indicated by county-level racial inequalities in socioeconomic status: the role of urban–rural classification”	Education, housing, economics	Black-White	Median income; percentage who completed a 4-year college degree; percentage who were unemployed; percentage among Black people and non-Hispanic White people who were homeowners; dissimilarity index
Bishop-Royce, 202133	“Structural racism, socioeconomic marginalization, and infant mortality”	Socioeconomic segregation	Black-White	ICE
Blanco, 202134	“The impact of residential segregation on pancreatic cancer diagnosis, treatment, and mortality”	Residential segregation	Black-White	Index of dissimilarity
Blebu, 201972	“An examination of preterm birth and residential social context among Black immigrant women in California, 2007–2010″	Residential context, segregation	Black immigrants	Neighborhood co-ethnic density (the proportion of foreign-born Black people per total tract population), Black racial concentration as the proportion of Black residents (per total tract population) in each tract for segregation, neighborhood deprivation index
Brown, 202035	“Structural factors and racial disparities in severe maternal morbidity: an examination of state- level indicators of structural racism and severe maternal morbidity among Black and White persons in the U.S., 2009–2011”	Criminal justice, political participation, education, and employment	Black-White	Criminal justice: the incarcerated proportion of the state’s adult population. Political participation: the proportion of the state’s citizen population registered to vote, and the proportion of the state’s citizen population who voted. Education: the proportion of the state’s population aged 25 years or older with a bachelor’s degree or higher, and the state’s 4-year adjusted cohort high school graduation rate. Each measure was constructed separately for the state’s Black and White populations.
Butler, 202065	“Generational impacts of 1930s housing discrimination and the imperative need for the healthy start initiative to address structural racism”	Housing	Black	HOLC assessed categories and redlining.
Chambers, 202066	“Exposures to structural racism and racial discrimination among pregnant and early post-partum Black women living in Oakland, California”	Socioeconomic segregation	Black	ICE (race plus income)
Chambers, 201936	“Using index of concentration at the extremes as indicators of structural racism to evaluate the association with preterm birth and infant mortality–California, 2011–2012”	Residential segregation	Black-White	ICE (race; income; race plus income)
Chantarat, 202137	“The intricacy of structural racism measurement: a pilot development of a latent- class multidimensional measure”	Housing, education, socioeconomics	Black-White	Dissimilarity index, disproportional index for education, employment, and ownership, ICE (income).
Collin, 202038	“Neighborhood-level redlining and lending bias are associated with breast cancer mortality in a large and diverse metropolitan area”	Redlining, banking	Black-White	Redlining, lending bias
Diaz, 202139	“Association of historic housing policy, modern day neighborhood deprivation and outcomes after inpatient hospitalization”	Housing	Black-White	HOLC assessment
Dougherty, 202027	“Measuring structural racism and its association with BMI”	Education, housing, employment, criminal justice, health care	Black-White	Housing dissimilarity index; school dissimilarity index; ratios of Black-White high school graduates, incarceration, poverty, primary care, and ambulatory care
Dyer, 202140	“The index of concentration at the extremes (ICE) and pregnancy-associated mortality in Louisiana 2016–2017”	Socioeconomic, housing segregation	Black-White	ICE (race plus income)
Dyer, 201967	“Mass incarceration and public health: the association between Black jail incarceration and adverse birth outcomes among Black women in Louisiana”	Housing	Black	HOLC assessment, ICE (income, homeownership)
English, 2021,41	“Intersecting structural oppression and Black sexual minority men’s health”	Residential segregation, incarceration, education, economics	Black-White	State racism index, Human Rights Campaign’s 2018 state equality index
Farhad, 202142	“Association between disparities in intergenerational economic mobility and cause-specific mortality among Black and White persons in the United States”	Economics	Black-White	Economic mobility gap
Fernandez-Esquer, 202173	“Structural racism and immigrant health: exploring the association between wage theft, mental health, and injury among Latino day laborers”	Economics	Latino	Wage theft
Graetz, 202130	“Historical redlining and contemporary racial disparities in neighborhood life expectancy”	Housing, education	Black-White	Census tract–level HOLC redlining grades; county-level total urban renewal projects; school segregation at the district-level; ICE (race, class); tract-level home values; tract-level race-class segregation
Hollenbach, 202143	“Associations between historically redlined districts and racial disparities in current obstetric outcomes”	Redlining	Black-White	HOLC assessment
Homan, 202144	“Structural intersectionality as a new direction for health disparities research”	Structural intersectionality (racism plus sexism) across economic, educational, judicial, political, and segregation	Black-White	Ratios (Black people to White people) of the following: incarceration; disproportionate level of disenfranchisement of Black people; proportion with a bachelor’s degree; unemployed rate; poverty rate; proportion who are homeowners; proportion who voted in 2008; and level of Black peoples’ political underrepresentation in state legislatures; state-level dissimilarity index (Black-White) of residential segregation
Houghton, 202145	“Firearm Homicide Mortality is Influenced by Structural Racism in US Metropolitan Areas”	Residential segregation, socioeconomics	Black-White	Dissimilarity index, percentage of the metropolitan area that is Black, population density, poverty rates, measures of educational attainment, crime rates, and a measure of state firearm legislation strength
Ibragimov, 202168	“Police killings of Black people and rates of sexually transmitted infections: a cross-sectional analysis of 75 large US metropolitan areas, 2016″	Policing	Black	Number of police killings of non-Hispanic Black people in 2015
Janevic, 202146	“Racial and economic neighborhood segregation, site of delivery, and morbidity and mortality in neonates born very preterm”	Residential segregation	Black-White	ICE (race plus income)
Kihlström and Kirby, 202129	“We carry history within us: anti-Black racism and the legacy of lynching on life expectancy in the U.S. South”	Direct violence/lynching	Black	Population adjusted rate of historic lynching 1877–1950
Knopov, 201947	“The role of racial residential segregation in Black-White disparities in firearm homicide at the state level in the United States, 1991–2015”	Residential segregation	Black-White	Index of dissimilarity
Krieger, 202048	“Structural racism, historical redlining, and risk of preterm birth in New York City, 2013–2017″	Housing, economic	Black-White	HOLC assessment, ICE (race plus income; race plus homeowner)
Larimore, 2019,49	“Routes to low birth (or not): local, cultural racism in exceptional communities”	Socioeconomics, power, freedom	Black-White	Percentage of each racial group in a managerial position; Black-White ratios of the following: median household income; proportion with a bachelor’s degree or higher; proportion between the ages of 16 and 64 years who are currently unemployed; proportion of each racial group with incomes below 100% of the federal poverty line; social connection; isolation index; sex ratios by race and age to capture the population removal of lack men due to incarceration, index of spatial proximity, Black-White jail population gap for each MSA
Leos, 202074	“Examining the effect of state- and individual-level structural racism on Latino adolescent sexual risk behaviors: an intergroup and intragroup analysis”	Education, criminal justice	Black-White Latino-White	State-level structural racism (disparities in high school completion rates, disparities in bachelor’s degree completion rates, disparities in juvenile commitment rates)
Linton, 202075	“Mortgage discrimination and racial/ethnic concentration are associated with same-race/ethnicity partnering among people who inject drugs in 19 US cities”	Residential segregation, housing	Black-White; Latino-White	ICE, mortgage loan denial
Liu, 201950	“Structural racism and severe maternal morbidity in New York State”	Education, employment, criminal justice	Black-White	Disproportionality measure in female educational attainment, female employment, and incarceration
Lundberg, 202176	“Quantifying the contribution of occupational segregation to racial disparities in health: a gap-closing perspective”	Occupational segregation	Black-White Hispanic-White Other race-White	No measure; use a counterfactual method to measure the effect of equalizing occupational opportunity on racial health disparity
Lynch, 202151	“The legacy of structural racism: associations between historic redlining, current mortgage lending, and health”	Redlining	Black-White	Historical redlining, contemporary lending discrimination
Martz, 202169	“Pathways linking census tract typologies with subjective neighborhood disorder and depressive symptoms in the Black Women’s Experiences Living with Lupus (BeWELL) Study”	Residential segregation	Black	Evenness dimension of racial residential segregation
Matoba, 2019,52	“Mortgage discrimination and preterm birth among African American women: an exploratory study”	Residential segregation	Black-White	Redlining index
Mitchell, 202183	“Tract level associations between historical residential redlining and contemporary fatal encounters with police”	Redlining	N/A	HOLC assessment
Mujahid, 202177	“Historical redlining and cardiovascular health: The Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis”	Housing/redlining	Black-White Hispanic-White Chinese-White	HOLC assessment
O’Brien, 202053	“Structural racism, economic opportunity, and racial health disparities: evidence from US counties”	Economics	Black-White	Racial opportunity gap
Owens-Young, 2020,63	“Structural racial inequities in socioeconomic status, urban–rural classification, and infant mortality in US counties”	Socioeconomics, education, housing	Black-White	Black-White ratios in median income, the percentage who completed a 4-year college degree, percentage who were unemployed, and percentage who were homeowners; dissimilarity index
Pabayo, 2019,54	“Structural racism and odds for infant mortality among infants born in the United States 2010″	Electoral, employment, criminal justice	Black-White	Prison incarceration and juvenile custody rates; sentencing rates; capital punishment; ratios of the proportion of the population aged ≥25 years with bachelor’s degree or higher, the proportion of civilian labor force not currently employed, proportion employed in management, business, science, and arts occupations, median household income
Pohl, 202178	“Relationship between residential segregation, later-life cognition, and incident dementia across race/ethnicity”	Residential segregation	Black-White Hispanic-White	Index of dissimilarity, index of isolation, index of interaction
Poulson, 202155	“Residential racial segregation and disparities in breast cancer presentation, treatment, and survival”	Residential segregation	Black-White	Index of dissimilarity
Poulson, 202156	“The role of racial segregation in treatment and outcomes among patients with hepatocellular carcinoma”	Residential segregation	Black-White	Index of dissimilarity
Poulson 202157	“The impact of racial residential segregation on prostate cancer diagnosis and treatment”	Residential segregation	Black-White	Index of dissimilarity
Poulson, 202158	“The impact of racial residential segregation on colorectal cancer outcomes and treatment”	Residential segregation	Black-White	Index of dissimilarity
Poulson, 202182	“Historic redlining, structural racism, and firearm violence: a structural equation modeling approach”	Housing	N/A	HOLC assessment
Richardson, 202070	“Reparations for Black American descendants of persons Enslaved in the US and their estimated impact on SARS-CoV-2 transmission”	Economics	Black	Gini coefficient: a hypothetical program of reparations for Black American descendants of persons enslaved in the United States
Samari, 202185	“Measuring structural xenophobia: US state immigration policy climates over ten years”	Immigration	All races	Immigration Policy Climate Index, which quantifies and tracks policies enacted by US states that have differential impacts on residents, based on immigration or legal status
Samari, 202184	“The Muslim ban and preterm birth: analysis of US vital statistics data from 2009 to 2018″	Immigration	Women born in 1 of the countries included in the Executive Order 13769 Muslim ban	No measure, instead used counterfactual analysis that removes the effect of the Executive Order 13769 Muslim ban
Sewell, 202159	“Political economies of acute childhood illnesses: measuring structural racism as meso level mortgage risks”	Housing and banking	Black-White	Neighborhood credit refusals, racialized credit refusals, neighborhood credit privateness, racialized credit privateness
Shim, 2021110	“Race and ethnicity of editorial board members and editors as an indicator of structural racism in psychiatry and neuroscience journals”	Education and publishing	Black, Asian, Hispanic/Latinx, White	Participation in the editorial team (editor-in-chief, editorial board members) in psychiatry journals
Siegel, 202123	“Racial/ethnic disparities in state-level COVID-19 vaccinations rates and their association with structural racism”	Economics, employment, incarceration, education, housing	Black-White Hispanic-White	State racism index
Siegel, 202124	“Actual racial/ethnic disparities in COVID-19 mortality for the non-Hispanic Black compared to non-Hispanic White population in 35 US states and their association with structural racism”	Economics, employment, incarceration, education, housing	Black-White	State racism index
Siegel, 202160	“The relationship between racial residential segregation and Black-White disparities in fatal police shootings at the city level, 2013–2017”	Residential segregation	Black-White	Dissimilarity index
Stermon and Lukinbeal, 202180	“Institutionalized racism: redlined districts then and now in Boston, Detroit, and Los Angeles”	Residential segregation	Non-White compared with White	Proportion of non-White people in the census tract, dissimilarity index, HOLC assessment
Sudhinaraset, 202186	“Analysis of state-level immigrant policies and preterm births by race/ethnicity among women born in the US and women born outside the US”	Immigration	White, Asian, Black, Hispanic (for the outcome, not the measure)	Criminalizing and integration of immigrant policies variables
Tackett, 202071	“Structural racism and its influence on the severity of atopic dermatitis in African American children”	Residential segregation	Black-White Latino-White	Dissimilarity index
Tan, 202161	“Structural racism and COVID-19 in the USA: a county-level empirical analysis”	Residential segregation	Black-White	Black-White spatial exposure, P~* score; Spatial Information Theory Index; the following Black-White ratios: poverty; employment; county-level jail incarceration rate
Treuhaft, 202081	“The racial equity tool index: a new data tool to drive local efforts to dismantle structural racism”	Economics, educational, environmental	Compare “population” with each race: White, Black, Latino, API, Native American, mixed race	Racial equity index; prosperity score
Vilda, 202162	“Structural racism, racial inequities, and urban–rural differences in infant mortality in the US”	Jail incarceration	Black-White	Parish-level jail incarceration prevalence
Volpe, 202164	“State- and provider- level racism and health care in the US”	Socioeconomic, judicial, political	Black-White	State-level structural racism using political participation, employment and job status, educational attainment, and judicial treatment modeled after Lukachko, Hatzenbuehler, and Keyes (2014).
White, 202126	“Residential racial segregation and social Distancing in the United States during COVID-19″	Residential segregation	Black-White	Dissimilarity index

Abbreviations: API, Asian and Pacific Islander; Black-White, Black and White (as with Latino-White, Hispanic-White, and so forth); HOLC, Home Owners’ Loan Corporation; ICE, index of concentration at the extremes; MSA, Metropolitan Statistical Area; N/A, not applicable.