Table 3.
The studies on two-sided role of SCFA in host health via “gut-kidney axis” establishing the connection between gut and kidney.
| Item | Model/subject | Administration route | Dose and duration | Outcomes | Effects type | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Butyrate | Sprague–Dawley rats AKI model induced by renal I/R, saline as control | Tail vein injection 30 min prior to the renal I/R operation | 100 mg/kg, 6, 12, and 24 h | ↑ Function and structure of kidney | Beneficial effect | Sun et al. (2022) |
| – | Thirty-two patients who underwent allograft renal transplantation | – | – | ↑ Fecal butyrate; ↑ renal function after renal transplant recovery | Beneficial effect | Sun et al. (2022) |
| Acetate, Bifidobacterium longumorBifidobacterium adolescentis | C57BL/6 mice AKI model induced by I/R | Bacteria gavage for 10 d before kidney IRI | Bacteria gavage | ↓ Acute kidney injury induced by IR | Beneficial effect | Andrade-Oliveira et al. (2015) |
| SCFA | C57BL/6 mice AKI model induced by I/R, saline as control | 0.5 h before I/R operation | Acetate (200 mg/kg), propionate (200 mg/kg), and butyrate (200 mg/kg) | ↓ Serum level of creatinine and urea; ↑ kidney function after IRI, and acetate performed the best protection. | Beneficial effect | Andrade-Oliveira et al. (2015) |
| Butyrate | Wistar rats AKI model induced by metaglumina diatrizoate sodium, saline as control | Tail vein injection 6 h before modeling | 500 mg/kg, 6 d | ↓ Serum creatinine level and IL-6 level | Beneficial effect | Machado et al. (2012) |
| Butyrate | Sprague–Dawley rats nephrotoxicity model induced by gentamicin | Intraperitoneal injection 30 min prior to gentamicin injection | 50, 100, 200 mg/kg, 8 d | ↑ Activities of superoxide dismutase, catalase; ↓ glutathione and nephrotoxicity | Beneficial effect | Sun et al. (2013) |
| – | One hundred and twenty-seven patients with CKD and 63 healthy 33 controls |
– | – | ↓ Serum SCFA levels in CKD patients, and an inverse correlation between butyrate level and renal function | Beneficial effect | Wang et al. (2019) |
| Butyrate | Sprague–Dawley rats, the 5/6 nephrectomized model | 0.5% butyrate administered by gavage after one week surgery recovery | 313 μL/kg, 8 weeks | ↓ Renal fibrosis and delayed CKD progression | Beneficial effect | Wang et al. (2019) |
| Propionate | C57BL/6 mice, FFA2−/− mice, and FFA3−/− mice CKD model induced by adenine | 0.5% or 1.0% propionate via drinking water for 6 weeks accompanying model construction | 0.5% or 1.0%, 6 weeks | ↓ Kidney damage; ↓serum level of creatinine and blood urea nitrogen | Beneficial effect | Mikami et al. (2020) |
| Diets | Sprague–Dawley rats CKD model induced by adenine | Amylopectin (low-fiber control) and high fermentable fiber for 3 weeks | – | ↑ Kidney function; ↑ gut permeability indexes | Beneficial effect | Kieffer et al. (2016) |
| Diets | Sprague–Dawley rats CKD model induced by adenine | Amylopectin (low-fiber control) and high fermentable fiber for 3 weeks | – | ↓ CKD progression; ↓ oxidative stress and inflammation | Beneficial effect | Vaziri et al. (2014) |
| – | Thirty participants with DKD, 30 normal controls | – | – | ↓ Fecal acetate, propionate, butyrate and total SCFA levels in DKD group | Beneficial effect | Zhong et al. (2021) |
| Diets, SCFA | C57BL/6 mice, GPR43−/− mice, and GPR109A−/− mice diabetes model induced by streptozotocin | High-fiber, normal chow, zero-fiber diets, SCFA in drinking water after modeling | Acetate (100 mM), butyrate (50 mM), and propionate (100 mM) for 3 weeks | ↓ Diabetic nephropathy; ↑ SCFA-producing bacteria; ↑ SCFA production | Beneficial effect | Li et al. (2020) |
| SCFA | Sprague Dawley rats rental stone model induced by ethylene glycol | Acetate, propionate, and butyrate in drinking water | 4 weeks | ↓ Renal crystals | Beneficial effect | Liu et al. (2020) |
| – | Five occasional stones patients, 5 recurrent stones patients, 5 non-kidney stone control | – | – | ↓ SCFA-producing gut bacteria; ↓ metabolic pathways associated with SCFA production in kidney stone patients | Beneficial effect | Liu et al. (2020) |
| SCFA | C57BL/6 mice, GPR43−/− mice, and GPR41−/− mice | Acetate, propionate, and butyrate in drinking water | Acetate (100, 150, and 200 mM), propionate (200 mM), and butyrate (200 mM) for 6 weeks | ↑ Renal hydronephrosis disease; ↑ hydronephrosis and hyperplasia in kidney and ureter tissues | Pathological effect | Park et al. (2016) |
AKI = acute kidney injury; I/R = ischemia/reperfusion; SCFA = short chain fatty acids; IL-6 = interleukin-6; CKD = chronic kidney disease; DKD = diabetic kidney disease. ↑ represents increase. ↓ represents decrease.