Table 7.
The studies on two-sided role of SCFA in host health via “gut-cardiovascular axis” establishing the connection between gut and cardiovascular.
| Item | Model/subject | Administration route | Dose and duration | Outcomes | Effects type | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Free fatty acid | 110 patients with or without heart failure | Metabolomics on blood from artery, coronary sinus, and femoral vein | – | Uptake of acetate was directly proportional to circulating concentrations in both heart | Beneficial effect | Murashige et al. (2020) |
| Butyrate | Cardiac hypertrophy Sprague–Dawley rats, sham operated as control | Hearts perfused | A mix of 0.5 mM butyrate and 0.5 mM 3-hydroxybutyrate | ↑ Oxidization in failing hearts | Beneficial effect | Carley et al. (2021) |
| Acetate | Long Evans rats model of OSA, sham rats receiving PBS as control | Chronic infused acetate into the cecum | 20 μmol/(kg ▪min) and 2 weeks | ↑ Cecal acetate concentrations; ↓ OSA on the microbiota, gut, brain, and blood pressure | Beneficial effect | Ganesh et al. (2018) |
| Acetate | Male C57BL/6 mice hypertensive model | Drinking water | 200 mM magnesium acetate and 3 weeks | Change the gut microbiota; ↓ development of hypertension and heart failure mice | Beneficial effect | Marques et al. (2017) |
| Propionate | Wild-type and Apoe−/− mice | Drinking water | 200 mM | ↓ Cardiac hypertrophy, fibrosis, vascular dysfunction, and hypertension | Beneficial effect | Bartolomaeus et al. (2019) |
| ①SCFA ②Sodium acetate |
①Male and female C57BL/6J mice ②Male C57BL/6J male mice |
①Intraperitoneal injection ②Heart perfused |
①1 g/kg ②1 M |
①↓Mean arterial pressure, HR, and cardiac contractility. ②Acetate ↓ HR after extended exposure |
Beneficial effect | Poll et al. (2021) |
| SCFA | C57BL/6 GPR41 WT male mice and GPR41 KO mice | – | – | ↓ Hypotensive response | Beneficial effect | Natarajan et al. (2016) |
| Butyrate | 14–16 weeks old wistar rats | Administration into the colon | 1.4 (n = 5), 2.8 (n = 5) and 5.6 mmol/kg (n = 5) | ↑ Hypotensive effect, which seems to be mediated by the colon afferent nervous signaling and GPR41/43 receptors | Beneficial effect | Onyszkiewicz et al. (2019) |
| Propionate | ①16 weeks female C57BL/6, Apoe−/− mice ②62 individuals with baseline LDL) cholesterol levels>115 mg/dL |
①Oral gavage ②Oral |
①150 mM calcium propionate and four weeks ②Propionate (500 mg) twice daily for 8 weeks |
①↓ High-fat diet-induced hypercholesterolaemia and atherosclerosis in Apoe−/− mice ②↓ Serum LDL and total cholesterol in hypercholesterolaemic humans |
Beneficial effect | Haghikia et al. (2022) |
| Butyrate | Twenty 6-week-old male apoprotein E deficient (Apoe−/−) mice | Diet | 1% butyrate-supplemented diet (butyrate) for 10 weeks | ↓ Inflammation and activation of NF-κB and atherosclerosis | Beneficial effect | Aguilar et al. (2014) |
SCFA = short chain fatty acids; OSA = obstructive sleep apnea; PBS = phosphate buffer saline; HR = heart rate; GPR = G-protein-coupled receptor; WT = wild type; KO = knock out; LDL = low-density lipoprotein; NF-κB = nuclear factor-kappaB. ↑ represents increase. ↓ represents decrease.