TABLE 1.

Detailed comparison of bone tissue organoid protocols.

Protocol	Cell Source	Scaffold/Matrix	Culture	Key Features	Applications	Limitations
Protocol A	Human Mesenchymal Stem Cells (hMSCs)	Matrigel	3D bioprinting, growth factors (e.g., BMP-2)	High reproducibility, rapid osteogenesis	Bone regeneration, fracture healing	Limited vascularization, scalability issues
Protocol B	Human Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells (hiPSCs)	GelMA (Gelatin Methacrylate)	Microfluidic devices, perfusion culture	Mimics bone microenvironment, dynamic nutrient flow	Drug screening, toxicity testing	High cost, complex fabrication
Protocol C	Human Embryonic Stem Cells (hESCs)	PLGA [Poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid)] scaffold	Static culture, osteoinductive medium	Strong osteogenic potential, scalable production	Disease modeling, bone tissue engineering	Scaffold degradation, immune response potential
Protocol D	Human Periosteum-Derived Cells (hPDCs)	Fibrin gel	Dynamic culture, osteoinductive supplements (e.g., dexamethasone, ascorbic acid)	High osteogenic potential, strong cellular differentiation	Bone regeneration, periosteal tissue engineering	Limited scalability, variable cell yield
Protocol E	Bone Marrow-Derived Stem Cells (BMSCs)	Decellularized bone matrix	Static and dynamic culture systems	Natural bone matrix, supports vascularization	Regenerative medicine, transplantation studies	Limited donor availability, complex preparation
Protocol F	Primary Osteoblasts	Collagen hydrogel	Rotary cell culture, osteogenic differentiation factors	Enhanced mineralization, physiological relevance	In vitro bone formation studies, biomaterial testing	Limited lifespan of primary cells, donor variability

Notes: hMSCs, Human mesenchymal stem cells; hiPSCs, Human induced pluripotent stem cells; GelMA, Gelatin methacrylate; hESCs, Human embryonic stem cells; PLGA, Poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid); hPDCs, Human periosteum-derived cells; BMSCs, Bone marrow-derived stem cells.