TABLE 3.
Summary of bone organoids.
| Bone organoid type | Cell source | Year | Latest applications | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Cartilaginous | BMSCs | 2024 | Basement membrane extract enhances the endochondral ossification phenotype of BMSCs-based cartilage organoids, indicating the potential for improving the functionality of cartilaginous tissues | Khan et al. (2023) |
| Woven bone organoids | BMSCs | 2021 | The differentiation of human BMSCs into a functional 3D self-organizing co-culture of osteoblasts and osteocytes, creating an organoid for early stage bone (woven bone) formation | Akiva et al. (2021) |
| Trabecular bone organoids | Primary female osteoblastic and osteoclastic cells | 2021 | The dense nature of trabecular bone allows for the detection of compositional gradients based on density, highlighting the potential for studying localized bone remodeling | Iordachescu et al. (2021) |
| Bone marrow organoids | hiPSCs | 2024 | Generating multilineage bone marrow organoids from hiPSCs, offering a method for disease modeling and drug discovery in the context of hematopoiesis. | Aude-Anais et al. (2024) |
| Callus organoids | BMSCs | 2022 | Engineering osteo-callus organoids for rapid bone regeneration using bone marrow-derived stem cell-loaded hydrogel microspheres and digital light-processing printing technology. | Xie et al. (2022) |
Notes: BMSCs: Human bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells; 3D, Three-dimensional; hiPSCs, Human induced pluripotent stem cells.