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. 2024 Sep 17;15:8165. doi: 10.1038/s41467-024-52433-z

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© The Author(s) 2024

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License, which permits any non-commercial use, sharing, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if you modified the licensed material. You do not have permission under this licence to share adapted material derived from this article or parts of it. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/.

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Fig. 3 — The box plots in panels (a–d) show hydrogen production from 1100 near cost-optimal net-zero pathways: (a) total hydrogen production, b hydrogen from electrolysis, c hydrogen from bioenergy with carbon capture and storage (BECCS), and (d) hydrogen from natural gas steam methane reforming with carbon capture and storage (SMR with CCS), all in exajoules (EJ). The box plots in panels (e–h) show where hydrogen is used across the energy system in the near cost-optimal net-zero pathways: (e) transportation, (f) buildings, (g) industrial, and (h) electric sectors. The solid lines show the deterministic least-cost net-zero pathways, while the dashed lines in each panel represent the deterministic current-policy pathways. Box plots indicate median (middle line), 25^th, 75^th percentile (box) and 1.5 times the inter-quartile range from the first and third quartiles (whiskers) as well as outliers (single points). Source data are provided as a Source Data file.