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. 2024 Sep 17;15:8165. doi: 10.1038/s41467-024-52433-z

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© The Author(s) 2024

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License, which permits any non-commercial use, sharing, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if you modified the licensed material. You do not have permission under this licence to share adapted material derived from this article or parts of it. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/.

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Fig. 5 — a CO₂ emissions in million tons, and (b) primary energy consumption from 2020 to 2050 in exajoules (EJ) for the deterministic net-zero and illustrative near cost-optimal pathways with low/high hydrogen production (Low/High H₂), low/high direct air capture use (Low/High DAC), and low/high overall electricity use (Low/High Elec). BECCS–Electricity refers to bioenergy with carbon capture and storage to produce electricity. BECCS–Hydrogen refers to bioenergy with carbon capture and storage to produce hydrogen. NG SMR (CCS) refers to natural gas steam methane reforming with carbon capture and sequestration. Source data are provided as a Source Data file.