TABLE 3.
Effect estimates and evidence for the education sector, grouped by outcome
| Outcome | Study (country) | Subgroups | Wave one January–November 2020 |
Wave two December 2020–May 2021 |
Wave three June–November 2021 |
Wave four December 2021 onwards |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| SARS-CoV-2 infection | Airoldi et al. [15] (Italy) | Education | # | NA | NA | NA |
| Ballering et al. [24] (Netherlands) | Education | 1.4 (1.1–1.8) | NA | NA | NA | |
| Beale et al. [16] (UK) | Primary teaching | 2.1 (1.4–3.0) | 1.7 (1.1–2.7) | 1.9 (1.4–2.5) | ||
| Secondary teaching | 1.7 (1.2–2.5) | 1.8 (1.2–2.7) | 1.5 (1.1–2.0) | |||
| Biarnés-Martínez et al. [25] (Spain) | NA | NA | NA | NA | ||
| Bonde et al. [17] (Denmark) | Education | 1.1 (0.9–1.3) | 1.4 (1.4–1.5) | 1.3 (1.2–1.4) | 1.5 (1.5–1.6) | |
| Green and Semple [18] (UK) | Teaching and education | 1.3 (1.1–1.4) | NA | NA | ||
| Magnusson et al. [19] (Norway) | Preschool teacher | 0.7 (0.6–0.9) | 1.2 (1.1–1.3) | NA | NA | |
| Primary school teacher | 0.8 (0.8–0.9) | 1.2 (1.2–1.2) | NA | NA | ||
| Upper secondary school teacher | 0.8 (0.6–0.9) | 1.1 (1.0–1.2) | NA | NA | ||
| University teacher | 1.1 (0.9–1.2) | 0.8 (0.7–0.9) | NA | NA | ||
| Nwaru et al. [20] (Sweden) | Teachers | 1.4 (1.4–1.5) | NA | NA | ||
| Reuter et al. [21] (Germany) | Teachers in schools of general education | 1.4 (0.8–2.8) | NA | NA | NA | |
| Education and social work | 1.2 (0.9–2.2) | NA | NA | NA | ||
| Rhodes et al. [22] (UK) | Education | 1.4 (1.3–1.5) | 1.4 (1.3–1.5) | 1.2 (1.1–1.3) | ||
| Verbeeck et al. [23] (Belgium) | Education | # | NA | NA | NA | |
| Hospitalisation for COVID-19 | Bonde et al. [26] (Denmark)# | Primary school teachers | 1.2 (0.9–1.5) | |||
| University/higher education teachers | 0.7 (0.4–1.0) | |||||
| Secondary education teachers | 0.9 (0.5–1.5) | |||||
| Early childhood educators | 1.2 (0.8–1.9) | |||||
| Vocational education teachers | 0.8 (0.4–1.3) | |||||
| Preschool child helper | 1.4 (0.8–2.5) | |||||
| Education managers | 0.6 (0.2–1.5) | |||||
| Cleaners | 1.6 (0.9–2.9) | |||||
| Mutambudzi et al. [27] (England) | Education workers | 1.6 (0.9–2.9) | NA | NA | NA | |
| COVID-19 mortality | Billingsley et al. [28] (Sweden) | Teachers | 0.8 (0.6–1.5) | NA | NA | NA |
| Cherrie et al. [29] (UK) | Education | 1.2 (1.0–1.4) | 1.0 (0.9–1.2) | 1.1 (0.8–1.4) | 0.6 (0.4–0.9) | |
| Matz et al. [30] (UK) | Education | # | #,¶ | # | NA | |
| Nafilyan et al. [31] (UK) | Teaching and educational professionals (male) | 0.9 (0.7–1.2) | NA | NA | NA | |
| Teaching and educational professionals (female) | 0.8 (0.7–1.1) | NA | NA | NA | ||
Pale red: evidence of moderately elevated risks; green: evidence of reduced risks; blue: unclear whether risks are reduced or increased; yellow: varies by subgroup. COVID-19: coronavirus disease 2019; NA: not applicable; SARS-CoV-2: severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2. #: relative effect estimates not reported; ¶: excess mortality when compared to previous 5 years but similar to nonessential workers.