TABLE 4.
Effect estimates and evidence for the social care sector, grouped by outcome
| Outcome | Study (country) | Subgroups | Wave one January–November 2020 |
Wave two December 2020–May 2021 |
Wave three June–November 2021 |
Wave four December 2021 onwards |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| SARS-CoV-2 infection | Airoldi et al. [15] (Italy) | Nursing home workers | # | NA | NA | NA |
| Ballering et al. [24] (Netherlands) | NA | NA | NA | NA | ||
| Beale et al. [16] (UK) | Social care | 1.6 (1.3–1.9) | 1.2 (0.9–1.5) | 1.2 (1.0–1.4) | ||
| Biarnés-Martínez et al. [25] (Spain) | NA | NA | NA | NA | ||
| Bonde et al. [17] (Denmark) | Social work | 1.0 (0.8–1.2) | 1.3 (1.2–1.3) | 1.2 (1.2–1.3) | 1.4 (1.3–1.4) | |
| Residential care | 3.1 (2.3–4.0) | 1.3 (1.2–1.4) | 0.7 (0.6–0.8) | 1.0 (0.9–1.0) | ||
| Green and Semple [18] (UK) | Social care | 1.4 (1.2–1.7) | NA | NA | ||
| Magnusson et al. [19] (Norway) | Childcare worker | 0.9 (0.8–1.0) | 1.3 (1.3–1.3) | NA | NA | |
| Nwaru et al. [20] (Sweden) | NA | NA | NA | NA | ||
| Reuter et al. [21] (Germany) | Geriatric care | 4.6 (2.0–9.0) | NA | NA | NA | |
| Education and social work | 1.2 (0.8–2.0) | NA | NA | NA | ||
| Rhodes et al. [22] (UK) | Social care | 1.3 (1.2–1.4) | 1.0 (0.9–1.0) | 1.1 (1.0–1.1) | ||
| Verbeeck et al. [23] (Belgium) | Residential care | # | NA | NA | NA | |
| Hospitalisation for COVID-19 | Bonde et al. [26] (Denmark) | Special teaching professionals | 1.1 (0.8–1.6) | |||
| Nursing aides (institutions) | 1.4 (1.1–1.9) | |||||
| Homecare aides, private homes | 1.2 (0.9–1.6) | |||||
| Nursing aides (private homes) | 1.7 (1.2–2.3) | |||||
| Teachers/daycare assistants: 0–3 years | 1.2 (0.9–1.8) | |||||
| Teachers/daycare assistants: 4–7 years | 1.6 (1.1–2.3) | |||||
| Teachers/daycare assistants: 7–15 years | 0.9 (0.4–2.1) | |||||
| Nursing professionals | 1.8 (1.2–2.8) | |||||
| Family daycare workers | 1.0 (0.6–1.7) | |||||
| Social work and counselling professionals | 0.9 (0.4–2.1) | |||||
| Cleaners | 1.4 (0.8–2.4) | |||||
| Primary school teachers | 1.1 (0.4–2.5) | |||||
| Kitchen helpers | 2.0 (0.7–5.6) | |||||
| Physiotherapists | 1.0 (0.4–2.5) | |||||
| Mutambudzi et al. [27] (England) | Social care workers | 2.13 (1.25–3.63) | NA | NA | NA | |
| COVID-19 mortality | Billingsley et al. [28] (Sweden) | Care workers | 0.74 (0.5–1.3) | NA | NA | NA |
| Cherrie et al. [29] (UK) | Social care | 1.6 (1.4–1.8) | 1.5 (1.3–1.6) | 1.2 (1.0–1.4) | 1.3 (1.0–1.6) | |
| Matz et al. [30] (UK) | Social care | # | # | # | NA | |
| Nafilyan et al. [31] (UK) | Social care (male) | 1.2 (1.0–1.5) | NA | NA | NA | |
| Social care (female) | 1.2 (1.0–1.4) | NA | NA | NA | ||
Pale red: evidence of moderately elevated risks; green: evidence of reduced risks; blue: unclear whether risks are reduced or increased; yellow: varies by subgroup. COVID-19: coronavirus disease 2019; NA: not applicable; SARS-CoV-2: severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2. #: relative effect estimates not reported.